Polyepitope carrier protein

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to polyepitope carrier proteins that comprise at least five CD4+ T cell epitopes, for conjugation to capsular polysaccharides. The carrier proteins are use useful as components of vaccines that can elicit a T-cell dependent immune response. These vaccines arm particularly useful to confer protection against infection from encapsulated bacteria in infants between the ages of 3 months and about 2 years.

This application is a national stage application, filed under 35 U.S.C.371, of the PCT application PCT/IB99/00844, filed Apr. 27, 1999 andclaims foreign priority to application, 988932.9 filed Apr. 27, 1998 inGreat Britain.

The present invention relates to polyepitope carrier proteins. Whenconjugated to capsular polysaccharides, these carrier proteins areuseful as components of vaccines that are capable of eliciting a T-celldependent immune response. Particularly, the proteins of the presentinvention may be used to confer protection against infection fromencapsulated bacteria in infants between the ages of 3 months and about2 years.

Encapsulated bacteria such as Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseriameningitidis and Streptococcus pneumoniae constitute a significant causeof morbidity and mortality in neonates and infants world-wide (Tunkel &Scheld, 1993). In developing countries, around one million children dieeach year due to pneumonia alone. Furthermore, even in developedcountries, the increase in the phenomenon of antibiotic resistance meansthat there is a great need to improve on existing vaccines.

The polysaccharide capsule of H. influenzae, N meningitidis and S.pneumoniae represents a major virulence factor that is important fornasopharyngeal colonisation and systemic invasion by encapsulatedbacteria (Moxon and Kroll, 1990). Consequently, much of the researchdirected towards finding protective immunogens has focused on capsularpolysaccharides. The finding that these polysaccharides are able toelicit the formation of protective antibodies led to the development ofa number of vaccines that have been efficacious in protecting adultsfrom disease (Andreoni et al. 1993; Goldblatt et al. 1992).

The problem with capsular polysaccharide vaccines developed to date isthat they suffer an inherent inability to protect children under twoyears of age from disease (Holmes and Granoff 1992). This is asignificant drawback when it is appreciated that this population ofchildren is at highest risk of infection. Their failure to blockinfection is believed to derive from the T-cell independent (TI)type ofimmune reaction that is the only antibody response used by the bodyagainst polysaccharide antigens. This type of response does not involveMHC Class II restriction molecules for antigen presentation to T-cells;as a consequence, T-cell help is prevented. Although the TI responseworks well in adults, it is inactive in very young children due to acombination of factors such as functional B-cell immaturity,inactivation of B-cell receptor-mediated signalling and B-cell anergy inresponse to antigen stimulation.

To overcome this drawback, two particular vaccine approaches arecurrently being investigated. The first is the development ofanti-idiotype vaccines that contain peptides that mimic carbohydrateidiotypes (McNamara 1984; Agadjanyan, 1997). The second approachinvolves conjugate vaccines that are designed to transform T-cellindependent (TI) polysaccharide antigens into T-dependent (TD) antigensthrough the covalent linkage of the polysaccharide to a peptide carrier.

H. influenzae type B (Hib) conjugate vaccines represent a leadingexample for the development of other vaccines against infections thatare due to capsulated bacteria. In fact, meningitis and other infectionscaused by Hib have declined dramatically in countries where widespreadvaccination with Hib conjugate has been achieved (Robins, 1996).Complete elimination of the pathogen might be possible, but depends uponseveral factors, including a further improvement of the existingvaccines (Liptak, 1997).

The widely distributed paediatric vaccine antigens tetanus and diptheriatoxoids have been selected as carrier proteins with the aim of takingadvantage of an already-primed population at the time of conjugatevaccine injection. Previous vaccination with paediatricdiptheria-tetanus (DT) or diptheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) vaccinesmeans that carrier priming may now be exploited to enhance the immuneresponse to polysaccharide conjugates.

A number of such vaccines have been successfully produced and have beenefficacious in reducing the number of deaths caused by these pathogens.The carriers used in these vaccines are large antigens such as tetanustoxoid, non-toxic diptheria toxin mutant CRM197 and group B N.meningitidis outer membrane protein complex (OMPC). However, in thefuture, it is thought that as the number of conjugate vaccinescontaining the same carrier proteins increases, the suppression ofimmune responses by pre-existing antibodies to the carrier is likely tobecome a problem.

Much research is now being directed to the development of improvedcarrier molecules that contain carrier peptides comprising CD4+ T helpercell (Th) epitopes, but which do not possess T-cell suppressive (Ts)functions (Etlinger et al. 1990). Peptides which retain only helperfunctions (CD4+ epitopes) are most suitable as carriers, since theireffect is sufficient to induce T cell help but the carrier is smallenough to limit or to completely avoid production of anti-carrierantibodies.

Various publications demonstrate the ability of such peptides to conferT-cell help to haptens when covalently linked to them (Etlinger, 1990;Valmori 1992; Sadd 1992; Kumar 1992; Kaliyaperumal, 1995; De Velasco,1995 and Bixier 1989). However, to date, these publications have notresulted in the development of effective vaccines. There thus remains agreat need for the development of new, improved vaccine strategies thatare effective in combating diseases caused by encapsulated bacteria ininfants and young children.

SUMMARY OF TE INVENTION

According to the present invention, there is provided a carrier proteincomprising at least five CD4+ T-cell epitopes. Preferably, the carrierprotein is conjugated to a polysaccharide. These compounds are useful asimmunogenic compounds that may in turn be useful as components ofprotective vaccines against diseases caused by bacterial pathogens.

A carrier protein is an antigenic polypeptide entity that induces theformation of antibodies directed against an antigen conjugated to it, bythe immune system of an organism into which the carrier-antigenconjugate is introduced. The necessity to use carrier proteins resultsfrom the fact that although many short epitopes are protective, they arepoorly immunogenic. This negates the usefulness of these epitopes in thegeneration of new and efficacious vaccines. By conjugating animmunogenic carrier protein to a molecule that is non-immunogenic, it ispossible to confer the high immunogenicity of the carrier protein ontothe conjugate molecule. Such conjugate molecules stimulate thegeneration of an immune response against the non-immunogenic portion ofthe conjugate molecule and thus have been effectively used in vaccinesthat protect against pathogens for which protective immunity could nototherwise be generated.

Hence, highly immunogenic proteins (such as tetanus toxoid) havehistorically been used as carriers in order to induce a Th cell responsethat provides help to B cells for the production of antibodies directedagainst non-immunogenic epitopes. However, overall effectiveness has notbeen generally achieved with this approach, since the antibody responseto a hapten (the epitope) coupled to a carrier protein can be inhibitedwhen the recipient host has been previously immunised with theunmodified carrier protein. This phenomenon is termed epitope-specificsuppression and has now been studied in a variety of hapten-carriersystems.

Coupling of bacterial polysaccharides to carrier proteins has been shownto improve the immunogenicity of the polysaccharide and results inantigens with novel characteristics. Furthermore, the coupling of athymus-independent (TI) polysaccharide to a protein makes thepolysaccharide thymus-dependent (TD).

A CD4+ T cell epitope is a peptide epitope that stimulates the activityof those T cells that are MHC Class II restricted. This subset of Tcells includes Th cells. Many CD4+ epitopes are well known to those ofskill in the art and have been shown to confer T cell help to haptenswhen covalently attached to them (Etlinger et al, 1990; Valmori 1992;Sadd 1992; Kumar 1992; Kaliyaperumal, 1995).

The CD4+ T epitopes used in the carrier proteins of the presentinvention ideally comprise peptides that are of as short a length aspossible. The epitope will thus retain its characteristics to asufficient degree to induce T-cell help, yet will be small enough thatexcessive production of anti-carrier antibodies will be minimised. Thisis preferable, since it is thought that suppression of immune responsesby preexisting antibodies to carrier epitopes is likely to become aproblem in the future if the number of congregate vaccines containingcommon carrier proteins keeps growing. Furthermore, the use of shortpeptides as carrier epitopes affords the rational selection of suitableTh epitopes, whilst avoiding stretches of sequence that contain B-cellor T-suppressor epitopes that will be detrimental to the function of theprotein in eliciting a TI immune response.

Suitable proteins from which CD4+ epitopes may be selected includetetanus toxin (TI), Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozite, hepatitis Bsurface antigen, hepatitis B nuclear core protein, H influenzae matrixprotein, H. influenzae haemagglutinin, diphtheria toxoid, diphtheriatoxoid mutant CRM197, group B N. meningitidis outer membrane proteincomplex (OMPC), the pneumococcal toxin pneumolysin, and heat shockproteins from Mycobacterium bovis and M. leprae. The M. leprae HSP70408-427 epitope is not found in the corresponding human homologoussequence (Adams et al., 1997 Infect Immun, 65:1061-70); since a possiblelimitation in the use of HSP motifs in vaccine formulations is thepossibility to induce autoimmune responses due to the high homologybetween microbial and human HSPs, this epitope is particularlypreferred. Other suitable carrier peptide epitopes will be well known tothose of skill in the art. The CD4+ T-cell epitopes selected from theseantigens are recognised by human CD4+ T cells.

It has been found that the number of T-cell epitopes present in thecarrier protein has a significant influence in conferring T-cell help tooligosaccharide molecules conjugated thereto. The polyepitope carrierprotein should contain five or more CD4+ T-cell epitopes. Preferably,the polyepitope carrier protein contains between 5 and 50 degenerateCD4+ T-cell epitopes, more preferably between 5 and 20 epitopes, evenmore preferably 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 or 19 degenerate CD4+ T-cellepitopes. The use of a number of universal epitopes in the carrierprotein has beep found to reduce the problem of genetic restriction ofthe immune response generated against peptide antigens.

In addition to CD4+ epitopes, the carrier proteins of the presentinvention may comprise other peptides or protein fragments, such asepitopes from immunomodulating cytokines such as interleukin-2 (IL-2) orgranulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). Promiscuouspeptides (Panina-Bordignon et al 1989), the so-called “universal”peptides (Kumar et al., 1992), cluster peptides (Ahlers et al., 1993) orpeptides containing both T cell and B cell epitopes (Lett et at, 1994)may also be used to recruit various effector systems of the immunesystem, as required.

The polyepitope carrier protein may be produced by any suitable means,as will be apparent to those of skill in the art. Two preferred methodsof construction of carrier proteins according to the invention aredirect synthesis and by production of recombinant protein. Preferably,the polyepitope carrier proteins of the present invention are producedby recombinant means, by expression from an encoding nucleic acidmolecule. Recombinant expression has the advantage that the productionof the carrier protein is inexpensive, safe, facile and does not involvethe use of toxic compounds that may require subsequent removal.

When expressed in recombinant form, the carrier proteins of the presentinvention are generated by expression from an encoding nucleic acid in ahost cell. Any host cell may be used, depending upon the individualrequirements of a particular vaccine system. Preferably, bacterial hostsare used for the production of recombinant protein, due to the ease withwhich bacteria may be manipulated and grown. The bacterial host ofchoice is Escherichia coli.

Preferably, if produced recombinantly, the carrier proteins areexpressed from plasmids that contain a synthetic nucleic acid insert.Such inserts may be designed by annealing oligonucleotide duplexes thatcode for the CD4+ T-cell epitopes. The 5′ and 3′ ends of the syntheticlinkers may be designed so as to anneal to each other. This techniqueallows annealing of the oligonucleotides in a random order, resulting ina mixture of potentially different mini-genes comprising any one of anumber of possible combinations of epitopes. This mixture is then clonedinto any suitable expression vector and a selection process ofexpressing clones is then performed. This strategy ensures that onlythose clones are selected that produce a carrier protein that is notdetrimental to the health of the cell in which it is expressed.Conversely, arbitrary selection of the order of epitopes has been foundto be less successful.

The ends of the epitope-encoding linkers may be designed so that twocodons are introduced between the individual epitopes when annealingtakes place. Amino acid residues such as glycine or lysine are examplesof suitable residues for use in the spacers. In particular, the use oflysine residues in spacers allows the further congregation of carrierprotein to capsular polysaccharide. Additionally, the insertion site inthe expression plasmid into which the nucleic acid encoding carrierprotein is cloned may allow linkage of the polyepitope carrier proteinto a tag, such as the “flag” peptide or polyhistidine. This arrangementfacilitates the subsequent purification of recombinant protein.

Nucleic acid encoding the polyepitope carrier protein may be clonedunder the control of an inducible promoter, so allowing preciseregulation of carrier protein expression. Suitable inducible systemswill be well known to those of skill in the art and include thewell-known lac system (Sambrook et al. 1989).

Methods of recombinant expression of carrier proteins according to theinvention will be well known to the skilled artisan, but for thepurposes of clarity are briefly discussed herein.

Mammalian expression systems are known in the art. A mammalian promoteris any DNA sequence capable of binding mammalian RNA polymerase andinitiating the downstream (3′) transcription of a coding sequence (e.g.structural gene) into mRNA. A promoter will have a transcriptioninitiating region, which is usually placed proximal to the 5′ end of thecoding sequence, and a TATA box, usually located 25-30 base pairs (bp)upstream of the transcription initiation site. The TATA box is thoughtto direct RNA polymerase II to begin RNA synthesis at the correct site.A mammalian promoter will also contain an upstream promoter element,usually located within 100 to 200 bp upstream of the TATA box. Anupstream promoter element determines the rate at which transcription isinitiated and can act in either orientation [Sambrook et al. (1989)“Expression of Cloned Genes in Mammalian Cells.” In Molecular Cloning: ALaboratory Manual, 2nd ed].

Mammalian viral genes are often highly expressed and have a broad hostrange; therefore sequences encoding mammalian viral genes provideparticularly useful promoter sequences. Examples include the SV40 earlypromoter, mouse mammary tumour virus LTR promoter, adenovirus major latepromoter (Ad MLP), and herpes simplex virus promoter. In addition,sequences derived from non-viral genes, such as the murinemetallotheionein gene, also provide useful promoter sequences.Expression may be either constitutive or regulated (inducible),depending on the promoter can be induced with glucocorticoid inhormone-responsive cells.

The presence of an enhancer element (enhancer), combined with thepromoter elements described above, will usually increase expressionlevels. An enhancer-is a regulatory DNA sequence that can stimulatetranscription up to 1000-fold when linked to homologous or heterologouspromoters, with synthesis beginning at the normal RNA start site.Enhancers are also active when they are placed upstream or downstreamfrom the transcription initiation site, in either normal or flippedorientation, or at a distance of more than 1000 nucleotides from thepromoter [Maniatis et al. (1987) Science 236:1237; Alberts et al. (1989)Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2nd ed.). Enhancer elements derived fromviruses may be particularly useful, because they usually have a broaderhost range. Examples include the SV40 early gene enhancer (Dijkema et al(1985) EMBO J. 4:761] and the enhancer/promoters derived from the longterminal repeat (LTR) of the Rous Sarcoma Virus [Gorman et al. (1982b)Proc. Nail. Acad. Sci. 79:6777] and from human cytomegalovirus [Boshartet al. (1985) Cell 41:521]. Additionally, some enhancers are regulatableand become active only in the presence of an inducer, such as a hormoneor metal ion [Sassone-Corsi and Borelli (1986) Trends Genet. 2:215;Maniatis et al. (1987) Science 236:1237].

A DNA molecule may be expressed intracellularly in mammalian cells. Apromoter sequence may be directly linked with the DNA molecule, in whichcase the first amino acid at the N-terminus of the recombinant proteinwill always be a methionine, which is encoded by the ATG start codon. Ifdesired, the N-terminus may be cleaved from the protein by in vitroincubation with cyanogen bromide.

Alternatively, foreign proteins can also be secreted from the cell intothe growth media by creating chimeric DNA molecules that encode afusion, protein comprised of a leader sequence fragment that providesfor secretion of the foreign protein in mammalian cells. Preferably,there are processing sites encoded between the leader fragment and theforeign gene that can be cleaved either in vivo or in vitro. The leadersequence fragment usually encodes a signal peptide comprised ofhydrophobic amino acids which direct the secretion of the protein fromthe cell. The adenovirus triparite leader is an example of a leadersequence that provides for secretion of a foreign protein in mammaliancells.

Usually, transcription termination and polyadenylation sequencesrecognised by mammalian cells are regulatory regions located 3′ to thetranslation stop codon and thus, together with the promoter elements,flank the coding sequence. The 3′ terminus of the mature mRNA is formedby site-specific post-transcriptional cleavage and polya-denylation[Birnstiel et al. (1985) Cell 41:349; Proudfoot and Whitelaw (1988)“Termination and 3′ end processing of eukaryotic RNA. In Transcriptionand splicing (ed. B. D. Hames and D. M. Glover); Proudfoot (1989) TrendsBiochem. Sci. 14:105].

These sequences direct the transcription of an mRNA which can betranslated into the polypeptide encoded by the DNA. Examples oftranscription terminater/polyadenylation signals include those derivedfrom SV40 [Sambrook et al (1989) “Expression of cloned genes in culturedmammalian cells.” In Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual].

Some genes may be expressed more efficiently when introns (also calledintervening sequences) are present. Several cDNAs, however, have beenefficiently expressed from vectors that lack splicing signals (alsocalled splice donor and acceptor sites) [see e.g., Gothing and Sambrook(1981) Nature 293:620]. Introns are intervening noncoding sequenceswithin a coding sequence that contain splice donor and acceptor sites.They are removed by a process called “splicing,” followingpolyadenylation of the primary transcript [Nevins (1983) Annu. Rev.Biochem. 52:441; Green (1986) Annu. Rev. Genet. 20:671; Padgett et al.(1986) Annu. Rev. Biochem. 55:1119; Krainer and Maniatis (1988) “RNAsplicing.” In Transcription and splicing (ed. B. D. Hames and D. M.Glover)].

Usually, the above-described components, comprising a promoter,polyadenylation signal, and transcription termination sequence are puttogether into expression constructs. Enhancers, introns with functionalsplice donor and acceptor sites, and leader sequences may also beincluded in an expression construct, if desired. Expression constructsare often maintained in a replicon, such as an extrachromosomal element(e.g., plasmids) capable of stable maintenance in a host, such asmammalian cells or bacteria. Mammalian replication systems include thosederived from animal viruses, which require trans-acting factors toreplicate. For example, plasmids containing the replication systems ofpapovaviruses, such as SV40 [Gluzman (1981) Cell 23:175] orpolyomavirus, replicate to extremely high copy number in the presence ofthe appropriate viral T antigen. Additional examples of mammalianreplicons include those derived from bovine papillomavirus andEpstein-Barr virus. Additionally, the replicon may have two replicatonsystems, thus allowing it to be maintained, for example, in mammaliancells for expression and in a prokaryotic host for cloning andamplification. Examples of such mammalian-bacteria shuttle vectorsinclude pMT2 [Kaufman et al. (1989) Mol. Cell. Biol. 9:946 and pHEBO[Shimizu et al. (1986) Mol. Cell. Biol. 6:1074].

The transformation procedure used depends upon the host to betransformed. Methods for introduction of heterologous polynucleotidesinto mammalian cells are known in the art and include dextran-mediatedtransfection, calcium phosphate precipitation, polybrene mediatedtransfection, protoplast fusion, electroporation, encapsulation of thepolynucleotide(s) in liposomes, and direct microinjection of the DNAinto nuclei.

Mammalian cell lines available as hosts for expression are known in theart and include many immortalised cell lines available from the AmericanType Culture Collection (ATCC), including but not limited to, Chinesehamster ovary (CHO) cells, HeLa cells, baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells,monkey kidney cells (COS), human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (e.g.,Hep G2), and a number of other cell lines.

The polynucleotide encoding the protein can also be inserted into asuitable insect expression vector, and is operably linked to the controlelements within that vector. Vector construction employs techniques thatare known in the art. Generally, the components of the expression systeminclude a transfer vector, usually a bacterial plasmid, which containsboth a fragment of the baculovirus genome, and a convenient restrictionsite for insertion of the heterologous gene or genes to be expressed; awild type baculovirus with a sequence homologous to thebaculovirus-specific fragment in the transfer vector (this allows forthe homologous recombination of the heterologous gene in to thebaculovirus genome); and appropriate insect host cells and growth media.

After inserting the DNA sequence encoding the protein into the transfervector, the vector and the wild type viral genome are transfected intoan insect host cell where the vector and viral genome are allowed torecombine. The packaged recombinant virus is expressed and recombinantplaques are identified and purified. Materials and methods forbaculovirus/insect cell expression systems are commercially available inkit form from, inter alia, Invitrogen, San Diego Calif. (“MaxBac” kit).These techniques are generally known to those skilled in the art andfully described in Summers and Smith, Texas Agricultural ExperimentStation Bulletin No. 1555 (1987) (hereinafter “Summers and Smith”).

Prior to inserting the DNA sequence encoding the protein into thebaculovirus genome, the above described components, comprising apromoter, leader (if desired), coding sequence of interest, andtranscription termination sequence, are usually assembled into anintermediate transplacement construct (transfer vector). This constructmay contain a single gene and operably linked regulatory elements;multiple genes, each with its owned set of operably linked regulatoryelements; or multiple genes, regulated by the same set of regulatoryelements. Intermediate transplacement constructs are often maintained ina replicon, such as an extrachromosomal element (e.g., plasmids) capableof stable maintenance in a host, such as a bacterium. The replicon willhave a replication system, thus allowing it to be maintained in asuitable host for cloning and amplification.

Currently, the most commonly used transfer vector for introducingforeign genes into AcNPV is pAc373. Many other vectors, known to thoseof skill in the art, have also been designed. These include, forexample, pVL985 (which alters the polyhedrin start codon from ATG toATT, and which introduces a BamHI cloning site 32 basepairs downstreamfrom the ATT; see Luckow and Summers, Virology (1989) 17:31.

The plasmid usually also contains the polyhedrin polyadenylation signal(Miller et al. (1988) Ann. Rev. Microbiol., 42:177) and a prokaryoticampicillin-resistance (amp) gene and origin of replication for selectionand propagation E. coli.

Baculovirus transfer vectors usually contain a baculovirus promoter. Abaculovirus promoter is any DNA sequence capable of binding abaculovirus RNA polymerase and initiating the downstream (5′ to 3′)transcription of a coding sequence (e.g. structural gene) into mRNA. Apromoter will have a transcription initiation region which is usuallyplaced proximal to the 5′ end of the coding sequence. This transcriptioninitiation region usually includes an RNA polymerase binding site and atranscription initiation site. A baculovirus transfer vector may alsohave a second domain called an enhancer, which, if present, is usuallydistal to the structural gene. Expression may be either regulated orconstitutive.

Structural genes, abundantly transcribed at late times in a viralinfection cycle, provide particularly useful promoter sequences.Examples include sequences derived from the gene encoding the viralpolyhedron protein, Friesen et al., (1986) “The Regulation ofBaculovirus Gene Expression,” in: The Molecular Biology of Baculoviruses(ed. Walter Doerfler); EPO Publ. Nos. 127 839 and 155 476; and the geneencoding the p10 protein; Vlak et al., (1988), J. Gen. Virol. 69:765.

DNA encoding suitable signal sequences can be derived from genes forsecreted insect or baculovirus proteins, such as the baculoviruspolyhedrin gene (Carbonell et al. (1988) Gene, 73:409). Alternatively,since the signals for mammalian cell posttranslational modifications(such as signal peptide cleavage, proteolytic cleavage, andphosphorylation) appear to be recognised by insect cells, and thesignals required for secretion and nuclear accumulation also appear tobe conserved between the invertebrate cells and vertebrate cells,leaders of non-insect origin, such as those derived from genes encodinghuman y-interferon, Maeda et al., (1985), Nature 315:592; humangastrin-releasing peptide, Lebacq-Verheyden et al., (1988), Molec. Cell.Biol. 8:3129; human IL-2, Smith et al., (1985) Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci.USA, 82:8404; mouse IL-3, (Miyajima et al., (1987) Gene 58:273; andhuman glucocerebrosidase, Martin et al. (1988) DNA, 7:99, can also beused to provide for secretion in insects.

A recombinant polypeptide or polyprotein may be expressedintracellularly or, if it is expressed with the proper regulatorysequences, it can be secreted. Good intracellular expression ofnon-fused foreign proteins usually requires heterologous genes thatideally have a short leader sequence containing suitable translationinitiation signals preceding an ATG start signal. If desired, methionineat the N-terminus may be cleaved from the mature protein by in vitroincubation with cyanogen bromide.

Alternatively, recombinant polyproteins or proteins which are notnaturally secreted can be secreted from the insect cell by creatingchimeric DNA molecules that encode a fusion protein comprised of aleader sequence fragment that provides for secretion of the foreignprotein in insects. The leader sequence fragment usually encodes asignal peptide comprised of hydrophobic amino acids which direct thetranslocation of the protein into the endoplasmic reticulum.

After insertion of the DNA sequence and/or the gene encoding theexpression product precursor of the protein, an insect cell host isco-transformed with the heterologous DNA of the transfer vector and thegenomic DNA of wild type baculovirus—usually by co-transfection. Thepromoter and transcription termination sequence of the construct willusually comprise a 2-5 kb section of the baculovirus genome. Methods forintroducing heterologous DNA into the desired site in the baculovirusvirus are known in the art. (See Summers and Smith supra; Ju et al.(1987); Smith et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. (1983) 3:2156; and Luckow andSummers (1989)). For example, the insertion can be into a gene such asthe polyhedrin gene, by homologous double crossover recombination;insertion can also be into a restriction enzyme site engineered into thedesired baculovirus gene. Miller et al., (1989), Bioessays 4:91. The DNAsequence, when cloned in place of the polyhedrin gene in the expressionvector, is flanked both 5′ and 3′ by polyhedrin-specific sequences andis positioned downstream of the polyhedrin promoter.

The newly formed baculovirus expression vector is subsequently packagedinto an infectious recombinant baculovirus. Homologous recombinationoccurs at low frequency (between about 1% and about 5%); thus, themajority of the virus produced after cotransfection is still wild-typevirus. Therefore, a method is necessary to identify recombinant viruses.An advantage of the expression system is a visual screen allowingrecombinant viruses to be distinguished. The polyhedrin protein, whichis produced by the native virus, is produced at very high levels in thenuclei of infected cells at late times after viral infection.Accumulated polyhedrin protein forms occlusion bodies that also containembedded particles. These occlusion bodies, up to 15 □m in size, arehighly refractile, giving them a bright shiny appearance that is readilyvisualised under the light microscope. Cells infected with recombinantviruses lack occlusion bodies. To distinguish recombinant virus fromwild-type virus, the transfection supernatant is plaqued onto amonolayer of insect cells by techniques known to those skilled in theart. Namely, the plaques are screened under the light microscope for thepresence (indicative of wild-type virus) or absence (indicative ofrecombinant virus) of occlusion bodies. “Current Protocols inMicrobiology” Vol. 2 (Ausubel et al. eds) at 16.8 (Supp. 10, 1990);Summers and Smith, supra; Miller et al. (1989).

Recombinant baculovirus expression vectors have been developed forinfection into several insect cells. For example, recombinantbaculoviruses have been developed for, inter alia: Aedes aegypti,Autographa californica, Bombyx mori, Drosophila melanogaster, Spodopterafrugiperda, and Trichoplusia ni (PCT Pub. No. WO 89/046699; Carbonell etal., (1985) J. Virol. 56:153; Wright (1986) Nature 321:718; Smith etal., (1983) Mol. Cell. Biol. 3:2156; and see generally, Fraser, et al(1989) Jn Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. 25:225).

Cells and cell culture media are commercially available for both directand fusion expression of heterologous polypeptides in abaculovirus/expression system; cell culture technology is generallyknown to those skilled in the art. See, e.g., Summers and Smith supra.

The modified insect cells may then be grown in an appropriate nutrientmedium, which allows for stable maintenance of the plasmid(s) present inthe modified insect host. Where the expression product gene is underinducible control, the host may be grown to high density, and expressioninduced. Alternatively, where expression is constitutive, the productwill be continuously expressed into the medium and the nutrient mediummust be continuously circulated while removing the product of interestand augmenting depleted nutrients. Me product may be purified by suchtechniques as chromatography, e.g., HPLC, affinity chromatography, ionexchange chromatography, etc.; electrophoresis; density gradientcentrifugation; solvent extraction, or the like. As appropriate, theproduct may be further purified, as required, so as to removesubstantially any insect proteins which are also secreted in the mediumor result from lysis of insect cells, so as to provide a product whichis at least substantially free of host debris, e.g., proteins, lipidsand polysaccharides.

In order to obtain protein expression, recombinant host cells derivedfrom the transformants are incubated under conditions which allowexpression of the recombinant protein encoding sequence. Theseconditions will vary, dependent upon the host cell selected. However,the conditions are readily ascertainable to those of ordinary skill inthe art, based upon what is known in the art.

Bacterial expression techniques are known in the art. A bacterialpromoter is any DNA sequence capable of binding bacterial RNA polymeraseand initiating the downstream (3″) transcription of a coding sequence(e.g. structural gene) into mRNA. A promoter will have a transcriptioninitiation region which is usually placed proximal to the 5′ end of thecoding sequence. This transcription initiation region usually includesan RNA polymerase binding site and a transcription initiation site. Abacterial promoter may also have a second domain called an operator,that may overlap an adjacent RNA polymerase binding site at which RNAsynthesis begins. The operator permits negative regulated (inducible)transcription, as a gene repressor protein may bind the operator andthereby inhibit transcription of a specific gene. Constitutiveexpression may occur in the absence of negative regulatory elements,such as the operator. In addition, positive regulation may be achievedby a gene activator protein binding sequence, which, if present isusually proximal (5′) to the RNA polymerase binding sequence. An exampleof a gene activator protein is the catabolite activator protein (CAP),which helps initiate transcription of the lac operon in Escherichia coli(E. coli) [Raibaud et al. (1984) Annu. Rev. Genet. 18:173]. Regulatedexpression may therefore be either positive or negative, thereby eitherenhancing or reducing transcription.

Sequences encoding metabolic pathway enzymes provide particularly usefulpromoter sequences. Examples include promoter sequences derived fromsugar metabolising enzymes, such as galactose, lactose (lac) [Chang etal. (1977) Nature 198:1056], and maltose. Additional examples includepromoter sequences derived from biosynthetic enzymes such as tryptophan(trp) [Goeddel et al. (1980) Nuc. Acids Res. 8:4057; Yelverton et al.(1981) Nucl. Acids Res. 9:731; U.S. Pat. No. 4,738,921; EPO Publ. Nos.036 776 and 121 775]. The g-laotamase (bla) promoter system [Weissmann(1981) “The cloning of interferon and other mistakes.” In Interferon 3(ed. I. Gresser)], bacteriophage lambda PL [Shimatake et al. (1981)Nature 292:128] and T5 [U.S. Pat. No. 4,689,406] promoter systems alsoprovide useful promoter sequences.

In addition, synthetic promoters that do not occur in nature alsofunction as bacterial promoters. For example, transcription activationsequences of one bacterial or bacteriophage promoter may be joined withthe operon sequences of another bacterial or bacteriophage promoter,creating a synthetic hybrid promoter [U.S. Pat. No. 4,551,433]. Forexample, the tac promoter is a hybrid trp-lac promoter comprised of bothtrp promoter and lac operon sequences that is regulated by the lacrepressor [Amann et al. (1983) Gene 25:167; de Boer et al. (1983) Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. 80:21]. Furthermore, a bacterial promoter can includenaturally occurring promoters of non-bacterial origin that have theability to bind bacterial RNA polymerase and initiate transcription. Anaturally occurring promoter of non-bacterial origin can also be coupledwith a compatible RNA polymerase to produce high levels of expression ofsome genes in prokaryotes. The bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase/promotersystem is an example of a coupled promoter system [Studier et al. (1986)J. Mol. Biol 189:113; Tabor et al. (1985) Proc Natl. Acad. Sci.82:1074]. In addition, a hybrid promoter can also be comprised of abacteriophage promoter and an E. coli operator region (EPO Publ. No. 26785 1).

In addition to a functioning promoter sequence, an efficient ribosomebinding site is also useful for the expression of foreign genes inprokaryotes. In E. coli, the ribosome binding site is called theShine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence and includes an initiation codon (ATG) anda sequence 3-9 nucleotides in length located 3-11 nucleotides upstreamof the initiation codon [Shine et al. (1975) Nature 254:34]. The SDsequence is thought to promote binding of mRNA to the ribosome by thepairing of bases between the SD sequence and the 3′ and of E. coli 16SrRNA [Steitz et al. (1979) “Genetic signals and nucleotide sequences inmessenger RNA.” In Biological Regulation and Development: GeneExpression (ed. R. F. Goldberger)]. To express eukaryotic genes andprokaryotic genes with weak ribosome-binding site [Sambrook et al.(1989) “Expression of cloned genes in Escherichia coli.” In MolecularCloning: A Laboratory Manual].

A DNA molecule may be expressed intracellularly. A promoter sequence maybe directly linked with the DNA molecule, in which case the first aminoacid at the N-terminus will always be a methionine, which is encoded bythe ATG start codon. If desired, methionine at the N-terminus may becleaved from the protein by in vitro incubation with cyanogen bromide orby either in vivo on in vitro incubation with a bacterial methionineN-terminal peptidase (EPO Publ. No. 219 237).

Fusion proteins provide an alternative to direct expression. Usually, aDNA sequence encoding the N-terminal portion of an endogenous bacterialprotein, or other stable protein, is fused to the 5′ end of heterologouscoding sequences. Upon expression, this construct will provide a fusionof the two amino acid sequences. For example, the bacteriophage lambdacell gene can be linked at the 5′ terminus of a foreign gene andexpressed in bacteria. The resulting fusion protein preferably retains asite for a processing enzyme (factor Xa) to cleave the bacteriophageprotein from the foreign gene [Nagai et al. (1984) Nature 309:810].Fusion proteins can also be made with sequences from the lacZ [Jia etal. (1987) Gene 60:197], trpE [Allen et al. (1987) J. Biotechnol. 5:93;Makoff et al. (1989) J. Gen. Microbiol. 135:11], and Chey [EPO Publ. No.324 647) genes. The DNA sequence at the junction of the two amino acidsequences may or may not encode a cleavable site. Another example is aubiquitin fusion protein. Such a fusion protein is made with theubiquitin region that preferably retains a site for a processing enzyme(e.g. ubiquitin specific processing-protease) to cleave the ubiquitinfrom the foreign protein. Through this method, native foreign proteincan be isolated [Miller et al. (1989) Bio/Technology 7:698].

Alternatively, foreign proteins can also be secreted from the cell bycreating chimeric DNA molecules that encode a fusion protein comprisedof a signal peptide sequence fragment that provides for secretion of theforeign protein in bacteria [U.S. Pat. No. 4,336,336]. The signalsequence fragment usually encodes a signal peptide comprised ofhydrophobic amino acids which direct the secretion of the protein fromthe cell. The protein is either secreted into the growth media(gram-positive bacteria) or into the periplasmic space, located betweenthe inner and outer membrane of the cell (gram-negative bacteria).Preferably there are processing sites, which can be cleaved either invivo or in vitro encoded between the signal peptide fragment and theforeign gene.

DNA encoding suitable signal sequences can be derived from genes forsecreted bacterial proteins, such as the E. coli outer membrane proteingene (ompA) [Masui et al. (1983), in: Experimental Manipulation of GeneExpression; Ghrayeb et al. (1984) EMBO J. 3:2437] and the E. colialkaline phosphatase signal sequence (phoA) [Oka et al. (1985) Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. 82:7212]. As an additional example, the signal sequenceof the alpha-amylase gene from various Bacillus strains can be used tosecrete heterologous proteins from B. subtilis [Palva et al. (1982)Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79:5582; EPO Publ. No. 244 042].

Usually, transcription termination sequences recognised by bacteria areregulatory regions located 3′ to the translation stop codon, and thustogether with the promoter flank the coding sequence. These sequencesdirect the transcription of an mRNA which can be translated into thepolypeptide encoded by the DNA. Transcription termination sequencesfrequently include DNA sequences of about 50 nucleotides capable offorming stem loop structures that aid in terminating transcription.Examples include transcription termination sequences derived from geneswith strong promoters, such as the trp gene in E. coli as well as otherbiosynthetic genes.

Usually, the above described components, comprising a promoter, signalsequence (if desired), coding sequence of interest, and transcriptiontermination sequence, are put together into expression constructs.Expression constructs are often maintained in a replicon, such as anextrachromosomal element (e.g., plasmids) capable of stable maintenancein a host, such as bacteria. The replicon will have a replicationsystem, thus allowing it to be maintained in a prokaryotic host eitherfor expression or for cloning and amplification. In addition, a repliconmay be either a high or low copy number plasmid. A high copy numberplasmid will generally have a copy number ranging from about 5 to about200, and usually about 10 to about 150. A host containing a high copynumber plasmid will preferably contain at least about 10, and morepreferably at least about 20 plasmids. Either a high or low copy numbervector may be selected, depending upon the effect of the vector and theforeign protein on the host.

Alternatively, the expression constructs can be integrated into thebacterial genome with an integrating vector. Integrating vectors usuallycontain at least one sequence homologous to the bacterial chromosomethat allows the vector to integrate. Integrations appear to result fromrecombinations between homologous DNA in the vector and the bacterialchromosome. For example, integrating vectors constructed with DNA fromvarious Bacillus strains integrate into the Bacillus chromosome (EPOPubl. No. 127 328). Integrating vectors may also be comprised ofbacteriophage or transposon sequences.

Usually, extrachromosomal and integrating expression constructs maycontain selectable markers to allow for the selection of bacterialstrains that have been transformed. Selectable markers can be expressedin the bacterial host and may include genes which render bacteriaresistant to drugs such as ampicillin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin,kanamycin (neomycin), and tetracycline [Davies et al. (1978) Annu. Rev.Microbiol. 32:469]. Selectable markers may also include biosyntheticgenes, such as those in the histidine, tryptophan, and leucinebiosynthetic pathways.

Alternatively, some of the above described components can be puttogether in transformation vectors. Transformation vectors are usuallycomprised of a selectable market that is either maintained in a repliconor developed into an integrating vector, as described above.

Expression and transformation vectors, either extra-chromosomalreplicons or integrating vectors, have been developed for transformationinto many bacteria. For example, expression vectors have been developedfor, inter alia, the following bacteria: Bacillus subtilis [Palva et al.(1982) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79:5582; EPO Publ. Nos. 036 259 and063 953; PCT Publ. No. WO 84/04541], Escherichia coli [Shimatake et al.(1981) Nature 292:128; Amann et al. (1985) Gene 40:183; Studier et al.(1986) J. Mol. Biol. 189:113; EPO Publ. Nos. 036 776, 136 829 and 136907], Streptococcus cremoris [Powell et al. (1988) Appl. Environ.Microbiol. 54:655]; Streptococcus lividans [Powell et al. (1988) Appl.Environ Microbiol. 54:655], Streptomyces lividans [U.S. Pat. No.4,745,056].

Methods of introducing exogenous DNA into bacterial hosts are well-knownin the art, and usually include either the transformation of bacteriatreated with CaCl₂ or other agents, such as divalent cations and DMSO.DNA can also be introduced into bacterial cells by electroporation.Transformation procedures usually vary with the bacterial species to betransformed. See e.g., [Masson et al. (1989) FEMS Microbiol. Lett.0.60:273; Palva et al. (1982) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79:5582; EPOPubl. Nos. 036 259 and 063 953; PCT Publ. No. WO 84/04541, Bacillus],[Miller et al. (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 85:856; Wang et al. (1990)J. Bacteriol. 172:949, Campylobacter], [Cohen et al. (1973) Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. 69:2110; Dower et al. (1988) Nucleic Acids Res. 16:6127;Kushner (1978) “An improved method for transformation of Escherichiacoli with ColE1-derived plasmids. In Genetic Engineering: Proceedings ofthe International Symposium on Genetic Engineering (eds. H. W. Boyer andS. Nicosia); Mandel et al. (1970) J. Mol. Biol. 53:159; Taketo (1988)Biochim. Biophys. Acta 949:318; Escherichia], [Chassy et al. (1987) FEMSMicrobiol. Lett. 44:173 Lactobacillus]; [Fiedler et al. (1988) Anal.Biochem 170:38, Pseudomonas]; [Augustin et al. (1990) FEMS Microbiol.Lett. 66:203, Staphylococcus], [Barany et al. (1980) J. Bacteriol.144:698; Harlander (1987) “Transformation of Streptococcus lactis byelectroporation, in: Streptococcal Genetics (ed. J. Ferretti and R.Curtiss III); Perry et al. (1981) Infect. Immun. 32:1295; Powell et al.(1988)Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54:655; Somkuti et al. (1987) Proc. 4thEvr. Cong. Biotechnology 1:412, Streptococcus].

Yeast expression systems are also known to one of ordinary skill in theart. A yeast promoter is any DNA sequence capable of binding yeast RNApolymerase and initiating the downstream (3′) transcription of a codingsequence (e.g. structural gene) into mRNA. A promoter will have atranscription initiation region which is usually placed proximal to the5′ end of the coding sequence. This transcription initiation regionusually includes an RNA polymerase binding site (the “TATA Box”) and atranscription initiation site. A yeast promoter may also have a seconddomain called an upstream activator sequence (UAS), which, if present,is usually distal to the structural gene. The UAS permits regulated(inducible) expression. Constitutive expression occurs in the absence ofa UAS. Regulated expression may be either positive or negative, therebyeither enhancing or reducing transcription.

Yeast is a fermenting organism with an active metabolic pathway,therefore sequences encoding enzymes in the metabolic pathway provideparticularly useful promoter sequences. Examples include alcoholdehydrogenase (ADH) (EPO Publ. No. 284 044), enolase, glucokinase,glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase(GAP or GAPDH), hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, 3-phosphoglyceratemutase, and pyruvate kinase (PyK) (EPO Publ. No. 329 203). The yeastPHO5 gene, encoding acid phosphatase, also provides useful promotersequences [Myanohara et al. (1983) Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA 80:11].

In addition, synthetic promoters which do not occur in nature alsofunction as yeast promoters. For example, UAS sequences of one yeastpromoter may be joined with the transcription activation region ofanother yeast promoter, creating a synthetic hybrid promoter. Examplesof such hybrid promoters include the ADH regulatory sequence linked tothe GAP transcription activation region (U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,876,197 and4,880,734). Other examples of hybrid promoters include promoters whichconsist of the regulatory sequences of either the ADH2, GAL4, GAL10, ORPHO5 genes, combined with the transcriptional activation region of aglycolytic enzyme gene such as GAP or PyK (EPO Publ. No. 164 556).Furthermore, a yeast promoter can include naturally occurring promotersof non-yeast origin that have the ability to bind yeast RNA polymeraseand initiate transcription. Examples of such promoters include, interalia, [Cohen et al. (1980) Proc. Mail. Acad. Sci. USA 77:1078; Henikoffet al. (1981) Nature 283:835; Hollenberg et al. (1981) Curr. TopicsMicrobiol. Immunol. 96:119; Hollenberg et al. (1979) “The Expression ofBacterial Antibiotic Resistance Genes in the Yeast Saccharomycescerevisiae,” in: Plasmids of Medical, Environmental and CommercialImportance (eds. K. N. Timmis and A. Puhler); Mercerau-Puigalon et al.(1980) Gene 11:163; Panthier et al. (1980) Curr. Genet. 2:109;].

A DNA molecule may be expressed intracellularly in yeast. A promotersequence may be directly linked with the DNA molecule, in which case thefirst amino acid at the N-terminus of the recombinant protein willalways be a methionine, which is encoded by the ATG start codon. Ifdesired, methionine at the N-terminus may be cleaved from the protein byin vitro incubation with cyanogen bromide.

Fusion proteins provide an alternative for yeast expression systems, aswell as in mammalian, baculovirus, and bacterial expression systems.Usually, a DNA sequence encoding the N-terminal portion of an endogenousyeast protein, or other stable protein, is fused to the 5′ end ofheterologous coding sequences. Upon expression, this construct willprovide a fusion of the two amino acid sequences. For example, the yeastor human superoxide dismutase (SOD) gene, can be linked at the 5′terminus of a foreign gene and expressed in yeast. The DNA sequence atthe junction of the two amino acid sequences may or may not encode acleavable site. See e.g., EPO Publ. No. 196 056. Another example is aubiquitin fusion protein. Such a fusion protein is made with theubiquitin region that preferably retains a site for a processing enzyme(e.g. ubiquitin-specific processing protease) to cleave the ubiquitinfrom the foreign protein. Through this method, therefore, native foreignprotein can be isolated (eg. WO88/024066).

Alternatively, foreign proteins can also be secreted from the cell intothe growth media by creating chimeric DNA molecules that encode a fusionprotein comprised of a leader sequence fragment that provide forsecretion in yeast of the foreign protein. Preferably, there areprocessing sites encoded between the leader fragment and the foreigngene that can be cleaved either in vivo or in vitro. The leader sequencefragment usually encodes a signal peptide comprised of hydrophobic aminoacids which direct the secretion of the protein from the cell.

DNA encoding suitable signal sequences can be derived from genes forsecreted yeast proteins, such as the yeast invertase gene (EPO Publ. No.012 873; JPO Publ. No. 62,096,086) and the A-factor gene (U.S. Pat. No.4,588,684). Alternatively, leaders of non-yeast origin, such as aninterferon leader, exist that also provide for secretion in yeast (EPOPubl. No. 060 057).

A preferred class of secretion leaders are those that employ a fragmentof the yeast alpha-factor gene, which contains both a “pre” signalsequence, and a “pro” region. The types of alpha-factor fragments thatcan be employed include the full-length pre-pro alpha factor leader(about 83 amino acid residues) as well as truncated alpha-factor leaders(usually about 25 to about 50 amino acid residues) (U.S. Pat. Nos.4,546,083 and 4,870,008; EPO Publ. No. 324 274). Additional leadersemploying an alpha-factor leader fragment that provides for secretioninclude hybrid alpha-factor leaders made with a presequence of a firstyeast, but a pro-region from a second yeast alphafactor. (See e.g., PCTPubl. No. WO 89/02463.)

Usually, transcription termination sequences recognised by yeast areregulatory regions located 3′ to the translation stop codon, and thustogether with the promoter flank the coding sequence. These sequencesdirect the transcription of an mRNA which can be translated into thepolypeptide encoded by the DNA Examples of transcription terminatorsequence and other yeast-recognised termination sequences, such as thosecoding for glycolytic enzymes.

Usually, the above described components, comprising a promoter, leader(if desired), coding sequence of interest, and transcription terminationsequence, are put together into expression constructs. Expressionconstructs are often maintained in a replicon, such as anextrachromosomal element (e.g., plasmids) capable of stable maintenancein a host, such as yeast or bacteria. The replicon may have tworeplication systems, thus allowing it to be maintained, for example, inyeast for expression and in a prokaryotic host for cloning andamplification. Examples of such yeast-bacteria shuttle vectors includeYEp24 [Botstein et al. (1979) Gene 8:17-24], pCl/1 [Brake et al. (1984)Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81:4642-4646], and YRp17 [Stinchcomb et al.(1982) J. Mol. Biol. 158:157]. In addition, a replicon may be either ahigh or low copy number plasmid. A high copy number plasmid willgenerally have a copy number ranging from about 5 to about 200, andusually about 10 to about 150. A host containing a high copy numberplasmid will preferably have at least about 10, and more preferably atleast about 20. Enter a high or low copy number vector may be selected,depending upon the effect of the vector and the foreign protein on thehost. See e.g., Brake et al., supra.

Alternatively, the expression constructs can be integrated into theyeast genome with an integrating vector. Integrating vectors usuallycontain at least one sequence homologous to a yeast chromosome thatallows the vector to integrate, and preferably contain two homologoussequences flanking the expression construct. Integrations appear toresult from recombinations between homologous DNA in the vector and theyeast chromosome [Orr-Weaver et al. (1983) Methods in Enzymol.101:228-245]. An integrating vector may be directed to a specific locusin yeast by selecting the appropriate homologous sequence for inclusionin the vector. See Orr-Weaver et al., supra. One or more expressionconstruct may integrate, possibly affecting levels of recombinantprotein produced [Rine et al. (1983) Proc. Na Acad. Sci. USA 80:6750].The chromosomal sequences included in the vector can occur either as asingle segment in the vector, which results in the integration of theentire vector, or two segments homologous to adjacent segments in thechromosome and flanking the expression construct in the vector, whichcan result in the stable integration of only the expression construct.

Usually, extrachromosomal and integrating expression constructs maycontain selectable markers to allow for the selection of yeast strainthat have been transformed. Selectable markers may include biosyntheticgenes that can be expressed in the yeast host, such as ADE2, HIS4, LEU2,TRP1, and ALG7, and the G418 resistance gene, which confer resistance inyeast cells to tunicamycin and G418, respectively. In addition, asuitable selectable marker may also provide yeast with the ability togrow in the presence of toxic compounds, such as metal. For example, thepresence of CUP1 allows yeast to grow in the presence of copper ions[Butt et al. (1987) Microbiol, Rev. 51:351].

Alternatively, some of the above described components can be puttogether into transformation vectors. Transformation vectors are usuallycomprised of a selectable marker that is either maintained in a repliconor developed into an integrating vector, as described above.

Expression and transformation vectors, either extrachromosomal repliconsor integrating vectors, have been developed for transformation into manyyeasts. For example, expression vectors have been developed for, interalia, the following yeasts: Candida albicans[Kurtz, et al. (1986) Mol.Cell. Biol. 6:142], Candida maltosa [Kunze, et al. (1985) J. BasicMicrobiol. 25:141]. Hansenula polymorpha [Gleeson, et al. (1986) J. GenMicrobiol. 132:3459; Roggenkamp et al. (1986) Mol. Gen. Genet. 202:302],Kluyveromyces fragilis [Das, et al. (1984) J. Bacteriol. 158:1165],Kluyveromyces lactis [De Louvencourt et al. (1983) J. Bacteriol.154:737; Van den Berg et al (1990) Bio/Technology 8:135], Pichiaguillerimondii [Kunze et al. (1985) J. Basic Microbiol. 25:141], Pichiapastoris [Cregg, et al. (1985) Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3376; U.S. Pat. Nos.4,837,148 and 4,929,555], Saccharomyces cerevisiae [Hinnen et al. (1978)Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 75:1929; Ito et al. (1983) J. Bacteriol.153:163], Schizosaccharomyces pombe [Beach and Nurse (1981) Nature300:706], and Yarrowia lipolytica [Davidow, et al. (1985) Curr. Genet.10:380471 Gaillardin, et al. (1985) Curr. Genet. 10:49].

Methods of introducing exogenous DNA into yeast hosts are well-known inthe art, and usually include either the transformation of spheroplastsor of intact yeast cells treated with alkali cations. Transformationprocedures usually vary with the yeast species to be transformed. Seee.g., [Kurtz et al. (1986) Mol. Cell. Biol. 6:142; Kunze et al. (1985)J. Basic Microbiol. 25:141; Candida]; [Gleeson et al. (1986) J. Gen.Microbiol. 132:3459; Roggenkamp et al. (1986) Mol. Gen. Genet. 202:302;Hansenula]; [Das et al. (1984) J. Bacteriol. 158:1165; De Louvencourt etal. (1983) J. Bacteriol. 154:1165; Van den Berg et al. (1990)Bio/Technology 8:135; Kluyveromyces]; [Cregg et al. (1985) Mol. Cell.Biol. 5:3376; Kunze et al. (1985) J. Basic Microbiol. 25:141; U.S. Pat.Nos. 4,837,148 and 4,929,555; Pichia]; [Hinnen et al. (1978) Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. USA 75;1929; Ito et al. (1983) J. Bacteriol. 153:163Saccharomyces]; [Beach and Nurse (1981) Nature 300:706;Schizosaccharomyces]; [Davidow et al. (1985) Curr. Genet. 10:39;Gaillardin et al. (1985) Curr. Genet. 10:49; Yarrowia].

Methods for the isolation and purification of recombinant proteins willbe well known to those of skill in the art and are summarised, forexample in Sambrook et al (1989). Particularly in bacteria such as E.coli, the recombinant protein will form inclusion bodies within thebacterial cell, thus facilitating its preparation. If produced ininclusion bodies, the carrier protein may need to be refolded to itsnatural conformation. Methods for renaturing proteins to their naturalfolded state are well known in the art.

Species in which the carrier proteins of the present invention may beimmunogenic and thus effective in eliciting an immune response includeall mammals, especially humans. In most cases, it will be preferred thatthe carrier proteins of the present invention are active eliciting animmune response in humans. The population of humans that are in greatestneed of protection from disease caused by encapsulated bacteria areinfants of between approximately 3 months and 2 years of age. It isduring this period that the infants generally do not receive protectionfrom mothers' milk and do not yet possess a sufficiently well-developedimmune system themselves to generate an immune response againstpolysaccharide antigens.

According to a further aspect of the present invention, there are alsoprovided nucleic acid molecules encoding carrier proteins according tothe first aspect of the invention. As will be apparent to the skilledartisan, such nucleic acid molecules will be designed using the geneticcode so as to encode the epitope that is desired.

Additionally, in order to precisely tailor the exact properties of theencoded carrier proteins, the skilled artisan will appreciate thatchanges may be made at the nucleotide level from known epitopesequences, by addition, substitution, deletion or insertion of one ormore nucleotides. Site-directed mutagenesis (SDM) is the method ofpreference used to generate mutated carrier proteins according to thepresent invention. There are many techniques of SDM now known to theskilled artisan, including oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis usingPCR as set out, for example by Sambrook et al., (1989) or usingcommercially available kits.

Most carrier proteins produced by such techniques of mutagenesis will beless efficacious than wild type proteins. However, it may be that in aminority of cases, such changes produce molecules with improved carrierprotein function as desired, such as greater immunogenicity in a certainorganism.

The nucleic acid molecules according to this aspect of the presentinvention may comprise DNA, RNA or cDNA and may additionally comprisenucleotide analogues in the coding sequence. Preferably, the nucleicacid molecules will comprise DNA.

A further aspect of the present invention provides a host cellcontaining a nucleic acid encoding a carrier protein. A still furtheraspect provides a method comprising introducing the encoding nucleicacid into a host cell or organism. Introduction of nucleic acid mayemploy any available technique. In eukaryotic cells, suitable techniquesmay include calcium phosphate transfection, DNA-dextran,electroporation, liposome-mediated transfection or transduction usingretrovirus or other viruses such as vaccinia. In bacterial cells,suitable techniques may include calcium chloride transformation,electroporation or transfection using bacteriophage. Introduction of thenucleic acid may be followed by causing or allowing expression from thenucleic acid, for example by culturing host cells under conditions forallowing expression of the gene.

In one embodiment, the nucleic acid is integrated into the genome of thehost cell. Integration may be promoted by the inclusion of sequencesthat promote recombination with the genome, in accordance with standardtechniques (see Sambrook et al., 1989).

According to a further embodiment of the present invention, there isprovided a carrier protein comprising at least five CD4+ T-cellepitopes, conjugated to polysaccharide. By polysaccharide is meant anylinear or branched polymer consisting of monosaccharide residues,usually linked by glycosidic linkages, and thus includesoligosaccharides. Preferably, the polysaccharide will contain between 2and 50 monosaccharide unites, more preferably between 6 and 30monosaccharide units.

The polysaccharide component may be based on or derived frompolysaccharide components of the polysaccharide capsule from many Grampositive and Gram negative bacterial pathogens such as H. influenzae, N.meningitidis and S. pneumoniae. This capsule represents a majorvirulence factor that is important for nasopharyngeal colonisation andsystemic invasion. Other bacteria from which polysaccharide componentsmay be conjugated to the carrier proteins of the present inventioninclude Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Salmonellatyphi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Shigella dysenteriae. Polysaccharidecomponents suitable for use according to this aspect of the presentinvention include the Hib oligosaccharide, lipopolysaccharide fromPseudomonas aeruginosa (Seid and Sadoff, 1981), lipopolysaccharides fromSalmonella (Konadu et al., 1996) and the O-specific polysaccharide fromShigella dysenteriae (Chu et al, 1991). Other polysaccharide componentssuitable for use in accordance with the present invention will bewell-known to those of skill in the art.

Fragments of bacterial capsular polysaccharide may be produced by anysuitable method, such as by acid hydrolysis or ultrasonic irradiation(Szn et al, 1986). Other methods of preparation of the polysaccharidecomponents will be well known to those of skill in the art.

The polysaccharide component of the conjugate vaccine should preferablybe coupled to the carrier protein by a covalent linkage. A particularlypreferred method of coupling polysaccharide and protein is by reductiveamination. Other methods include: activation of the polysaccharide withcyanogen bromide followed by reaction with adipic acid dihydrazide(spacer) and by conjugation to carboxide groups of carrier protein usingsoluble carbodiimides (Shneerson et al, 1986); functionalisation of thecarrier protein with adipic acid dihydrazide followed by coupling tocyanogen bromide activated polysaccharides (Dick et al, 1989); chemicalmodification of both the carrier protein and the polysaccharide followedby their coupling (Marburg et at, 1986; Marburg et al, 1987 and 1989).In some cases, polysaccharides containing carboxide groups such as groupC meningococcal polysaccharides can be directly conjugated to proteinsusing soluble carbodiimides. Polysaccharides can also be activated usingalternative agents such as CDAP (1-cyano-4-dimethylamino-pyrridiniumtetrafluorborate) and then directly conjugated to the carrier protein(Konadu et at, 1996). Periodate-treated polysaccharides oroligosachrides can all be conjugated to proteins by means of reductiveamination (Jennings and Lugowsky, 1982; Anderson, 1983; Insel, 1986).Alternatively, oligosaccharides obtained by acidic hydrolysis can bechemically derivatised by introducing into their reducing end groups anhydrocarbon spacer bearing an active ester terminus; this activatedoligosaccharide can be conjugated to the selected carrier protein(Costantino et al, 1992).

The polysaccharide molecule may be coupled to the carrier protein by aspacer molecule, such as adipic acid. This spacer molecule can be usedto facilitate the coupling of protein to polysaccharide. After thecoupling reaction has been performed, the conjugate may be purified bydiafiltration or other known methods to remove unreacted protein orpolysaccharide components.

According to a further aspect of the present invention there is provideda method of production of a carrier protein according to the firstaspect of the present invention, comprising the steps of:

-   -   (a) constructing oligonucleotide molecules that encode peptide        epitopes;    -   (b) annealing the oligonucleotide molecules to form duplexes;    -   (c) introducing the oligonucleotide duplexes into an expression        vector so as to encode a fusion protein;    -   (d) introducing the expression vector into a bacterial host tell        to allow expression of the fusion protein;    -   (e) isolating the fusion protein produced from a culture of said        bacteria.

Optionally, this method may additionally comprise conjugating thecarrier protein to a polysaccharide molecule.

Preferably, the bacterial host cell used in this method is an E. colibacterial host cell.

According to the further aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a composition comprising a carrier protein that contains atleast five CD4+ T-Cell epitopes conjugated to a polysaccharide, inconjunction with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. Such acomposition may be rationally designed so as to provide protectionagainst disease caused by pathogenic bacteria such as H. influenzae, S.pneumoniae, N. meningitidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella,Pseudomonas and S. typhi and accordingly, may be used as a vaccine.Vaccines according to the invention may either be prophylactic (ie. toprevent infection) or therapeutic (ie. to treat disease afterinfection).

By pharmaceutically-acceptable excipient is meant any compound that doesnot itself induce the production of antibodies harmful to the individualreceiving the composition. The excipient should be suitable for oral,subcutaneous, intramuscular, topical or intravenous administration.Suitable compounds are typically large, slowly metabolisedmacromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, polylactic acids,polyglycolic acids, polymeric amino acids, amino acid copolymers, lipidaggregates (such as oil droplets or liposomes) and inactive virusparticles. Such compounds are well known to those of skill in the art.Additionally, these compounds may function as immunostimulating agents(“adjuvants”). Furthermore, the antigen may be conjugated to a bacterialtoxoid.

Preferred adjuvants to enhance effectiveness of the composition include,but are not limited to: (1) aluminium salts (alum), such as aluminumhydroxide, aluminum phosphate, aluminum sulphate, etc; (2) oil-in-wateremulsion formulations (with or without other specific immunostimulatingagents such as muramyl peptides or bacterial cell wall components), suchas for example (a) MF59™(WO 90/14937), containing 5% Squalene, 0.5%Tween™ 80, and 0.5% SPAN 85 (optionally containing various amounts ofMTP-PE, although not required) formulated into submicron particles usinga microfluidizer (b) SAF, containing 10% Squalane, 0.4% TWEEN 80, 5%pluronicblocked polymer L121, and thr-MDP either microfluidised into asubmicron emulsion or vortexed to generate a larger particle sizeemulsion, and (c) Ribi™ adjuvant system (RAS), containing 2% Squalene,0.2% TWEEN 80, and one or more bacterial cell wall components from thegroup consisting of monophosphorylipid A (MPL), trehalose dimnycolate(TDM), and cell wall skeleton (CWS), preferably MPL+CWS (Detox™); (3)saponin adjuvants, such as Stimulon™ may be used or particles generatedtherefrom such as ISCOMs (immunostimulating complexes); (4) Freund'scomplete and incomplete adjuvants (CFA & IFA); (5) cytokines, such asinterleukins (eg. IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-12, etc.),interferons (eg. IFNγ), macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF),tumor necrosis factor (TNF), etc; and (6) other substances that act asimunostimulating agents to enhance the efficacy of the composition. Alumand MF59™ are preferred.

As mentioned above, muramyl peptides include, but are not limited to,N-acetyl-muramyl-L-threonyl-D-isoglutamine (thr-MDP),N-acetyl-normuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutamine (nor-MDP),N-acetylmuramyl-L-alanyl-D-isoglutaminyl-L-alanine-2-(1′-2′-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-huydroxyphosphoryloxy)-ethylamine(MTP-PE), etc.

The immunogenic compositions (eg. the antigen, pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier, and adjuvant) typically will contain diluents, suchas water, saline, glycerol, ethanol, etc. Additionally, auxiliarysubstances, such as wetting or emulsifying agents, pH bufferingsubstances, and the like, may be present in such vehicles.

Typically, the immunogenic compositions are prepared as injectables,either as liquid solutions or suspensions; solid forms suitable forsolution in, or suspension in, liquid vehicles prior to injection mayalso be prepared. The preparation also may be emulsified or encapsulatedin liposomes for enhanced adjuvanticity effect, as discussed above.

Immunogenic compositions used as vaccines comprise an immunologicallyeffective amount of the carrier protein, as well as any other of theabove-mentioned components, as needed. By “immunologically effectiveamount”, it is meant that the administration of that amount to anindividual, either in a single dose or as part of a series, is effectivefor treatment or prevention. This amount varies depending upon thehealth and physical condition of the individual to be treated, thetaxonomic group of individual to be treated (eg. non-human primate,primate, etc.), the capacity of the individual's immune system tosynthesise antibodies, the degree of protection desired, the formulationof the vaccine, the treating doctor's assessment of the medicalsituation, and other relevant factors. It is expected that the amountwill fall in a relatively broad range that can be determined throughroutine trials.

The immunogenic compositions are conventionally administeredparenterally eg. by injection, either subcutaneously or intramuscularly.They may also be administered to mucosal surfaces (eg. oral orintranasal), or in the form of pulmonary formulations, suppositories, ortransdermal applications. Dosage treatment may be a single dose scheduleor a multiple dose schedule. The vaccine may be administered inconjunction with other immunoregulatory agents.

As an alternative to protein-based vaccines, DNA vaccination may beemployed [eg. Robinson & Torres (1997) Seminars in Immunology 9:271-283;Donnelly et al. (1997) Annu Rev Immunol 15:617-648]. Accordingly, ratherthan comprise a peptide, oligopeptide, or polypeptide compound, thevaccines of the invention might comprise nucleic acid encoding thesecompounds.

According to a further aspect of the invention, there is provided aprocess for the formulation of an immunogenic composition comprisingbringing a carrier protein according to the first aspect of theinvention, conjugated to a polysaccharide, into association with apharmaceutically-acceptable carrier, optionally with an adjuvant.

According to a still further aspect of the present invention, there isprovided a method of vaccinating a mammal, preferably a human against adisease, comprising administering to the mammal a composition of carrierprotein conjugated to polysaccharide, optionally with apharmaceutically-acceptable carrier such as an adjuvant.

Various aspects and embodiments of the present invention will now bedescribed in more detail by way of example, with particular reference tothe carrier proteins N6 and N10 conjugated to HIB capsularpolysaccharide. It will be appreciated that modification of detail maybe made without departing from the scope of the invention. Allpublications, patents, and patent applications cited herein areincorporated in full by reference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1A and 1B are schematic representations of the construction of theN6 protein.

FIGS. 2A-2C illustrate the N6 and N10 constructs and their respectiveDNA and amino acid sequences. The histidine tag, the flag peptide, theFxa cutting site and the CD4+ T cell epitopes are underlined.

FIG. 3 is a Coomassie-stained SDS-PAGE gel of total protein extractsprepared from induced E. coli clones producing the different polyepitopeproteins. Lane A: negative control (TG1 cells containing pQE30 vectorwith no insert); lane B: TG1 cells containing the pQE30-N10 plasmid;lane C: TOP10 cells containing the pTrc-N10 plasmicd; lane D: TOP10cells containing the pTrc-N6 plasmid; lane E: low molecular weightmarkers.

FIG. 4 is an immunoblot of the SDS-PAGE gel that is illustrated in FIG.3. The Western blot was incubated with a rabbit antiserum specific forthe flag peptide and then with a peroxidated anti-rabbit IgG antibody.The immune reaction was then revealed using 4-chloro-1-napthol assubstrate for the peroxidase.

FIG. 5 is an SDS-PAGE Coomassie-stained gel containing different samplesobtained during the procedure of purification of the N6 protein. Lane A:starting material (total protein of the induced TOP10 E. coli cellscontaining pTrc-N6 plasmid; lane B: soluble proteins (supernatantobtained after centrifugation of the total protein sample); lane C:proteins soluble in 1 M urea (supernatant obtained after washing theinsoluble proteins with 1 M urea); lane D: inclusion bodies (pelletobtained after washing the insoluble proteins with 1 M urea); lane E: N6protein obtained from purification on Ni²⁺ NTA resin using theimmobilised metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) technique; lane F: lowmolecular weight markers.

FIG. 6 is an immunoblot of the SDS-PAGE gel that is illustrated in FIG.5. The Western blot was incubated with a rabbit antiserum specific forthe flag peptide and then with a peroxidated anti-rabbit IgG antibody.The immune reaction was then revealed using 4-chloro-1-napthol assubstrate for the peroxidase.

FIGS. 7A and 7B are schematic representations of the N11 construct andits respective DNA and protein sequence. The hexahistidine tag, the flagpeptide, the FXa cutting site, and the CD4+ T cell epitopes areunderlined.

FIGS. 8A and 8B are schematic representations of th N19 construct andits respective DNA and protein sequence. The hexahistidine tag, the flagpeptide, the FXa cutting site, and the CD4+ T cell epitopes areunderlined.

FIG. 9 is an SDS-Page and Coomassie staining of proteins coming fromTop10-Trc-N11 E. coli clone.

Lane A: Total extract of an uninduced culture.

Lane B: Total extract of a culture induced using IPTG.

Lane C: purified N11 protein (solubilisation of whole cells withguanidinium and IMAC chromatography).

-   -   FIGS. 10A, 10B and 10C depict SDS-PAGE gels obtained from IMAC        chromatography performed on N19 protein (FIG. 10A) and N19        protein conjugated to Hib polysaccharide (FIG. 10B), and western        immunoblots of the N19 protein and the N19 protein conjugated to        Hib polysaccharide using an anti-flag antibody (FIG. 10C) as        follows:

FIG. 10A: SDS-Page and Coomassie staining. Analysis of the fractionsobtained from IMAC chromatography performed to purify N19 protein. Lanea: prestained molecular weight markers. Lane b: flow through. Lanes fromc to m: gradient fractions showing the purified N19 protein; the bandshaving a molecular weight lower than N19 and visible in the overloadedlanes f, g, and h represents degradation products of the N19 protein.

FIG. 10B: SDS-Page and Coomassie staining. Analysis of the fractionsobtained from IMAC chromatography of the N19 conjugated to Hibpolysaccharide. All N19 protein resulted to be conjugated, as judged bythe high molecular weight of the conjugate and by the absence of 43.00kDa unconjugated N19 protein.

FIG. 10C: The same conjugate samples used in picture B were subjected towestern immunoblot using an anti-flag antibody. Also here it can beappreciated that all N19 protein migrated as a very high molecularweight after conjugation to Hib polysaccharide, and that there is notunconjugated N19 protein migrating at 43.000 kDa.

FIG. 11: Proliferative response of two human T cell clones specific forP30TT (GG-22 clone) and P2TT (KSIMK-140 clone) after stimulation withthe respective synthetic peptides (controls) and with conjugated ornunconjugated polyepitope proteins (cpm: counts per minute).

FIG. 12: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) proliferation asssay.PBMC from three healthy donors, RR, EB and MC, immune to tetanus toxoidwere stimulated with tetanus toxoid, P2TT, N6, N6-Hib and N10-Hib.

FIG. 13: Results of the immunogenicity tests performed to compare thecarrier effect of N10, N19, and CRM-197, and to check for carrierinduced immunosuppression phenomena. Anti-Hib titres obtained afterimmunising primed and unprimed CD1 mice with different conjugates.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION MATERIALS AND METHODS

Summary of standard procedures and techniques

The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwiseindicated, conventional techniques of molecular biology, microbiology,recombinant DNA, and immunology, which are within the skill of the art.Such techniques are explained fully in the literature eg. SambrookMolecular Cloning; A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition (1989); DNACloning, Volumes I and ii (D. N Glover ed. 1985); OligonucleotideSynthesis (M. J. Gait ed, 1984); Nucleic Acid Hybridization (B. D. Hames& S. J. Higgins eds. 1984); Transcription and Translation (B. D. Hames &S. J. Higgins eds. 1984); Animal Cell Culture (R. I. Freshney ed. 1986);Immobilised Cells and Enzymes (IRL Press, 1986); B. Perbal, A PracticalGuide to Molecular Cloning (1984); the Methods in Enzymology series(Academic Press, Inc.), especially volumes 154 & 155; Gene TransferVectors for Mammalian Cells (J. H. Miller and M. P. Calos eds. 1987,Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory); Mayer and Walker, eds. (1987),Immunochemical Methods in Cell and Molecular Biology (Academic Press,London); Scopes, (1987) Protein Purification: Principles and Practice,Second Edition (Springer-Verlag, N.Y.), and Handbook of ExperimentalImmunology, Volumes I-IV (D. M. Weir and C. C. Blackwell eds 1986).

Plasmids, strains and T cell clones.

PEMBLex2 plasmid was derived from pEMBL8M (Dente L. and Cortese R.,Meth. Enzymol. (1987), 155:111-9) by inserting a λP_(L) promoter and apolylinker into the EcoRI and HindIII sites. The commercial vectorspTrc-His and pQE30 were purchased from Invitrogen and Qiagenrespectively. E. coli strains used as recipients of the above plasmidswere: K12ΔH1ΔTrp for pEMBLex2, TOP10 for pTrc-His and TG1 for pQE30.

Human T cell clones KSMIK 140 and GG-22 specific for P2TT and P30TTrespectively were kindly provided by Dr. A. Lanzavecchia (Basel,Switzerland).

Construction of recombinant plasmids that express the N6 polyepitopecarrier protein.

Complementary oligodeoxyribonucleotide pairs coding for P2TT, P21TT,P23TT, P30TT1, P32TT and PfT3 T cell epitopes (Table I) and for a Flagpeptide were synthesised using the DNA synthesiser ABI394 (Perkin Elmer)and the reagents from Cruachem (Glasgow, Scotland). The oligo pairs wereseparately annealed in T4 DNA ligase buffer (Boehringer Mannheim) andequimolar amounts of each annealing reaction were mixed and ligated atroom temperature for 3 hours using T4 DNA ligase (Boehringer Manheim).

The ligase reaction was then loaded onto a 1% agarose gel and subjectedto electrophoresis. The bands corresponding to the DNA fragments ofexpected size were isolated, purified and cloned into the pEMBLex2expression vector using standard protocols (Sambrook et al., 1989).After transformation, a rabbit antiserum specific for the Flag peptidewas used to perform colony-screenings (Sambrook et al., 1989) in orderto identify recombinant protein producing clones. Protein extracts frompositive clones were analysed using SDS-PAGE to further select forclones on the basis of recombinant protein size.

TABLE I CD4+ T cell epitopes inserted in the recombinant polyepitopecarrier proteins. T cell Amino acid SEQ epitope position Amino acidsequence ID NO: References P23TT 1084-1099 VSIDKFRIFCKANPK 1 Demotz etal. 1993 Eur. J Immunol 23: 425 P32TT 1174-1189 LKFIIKRYTPNNEIDS 2Demotz et al. 1993 Eur J Immunol 23: 425 P21TT 1064-1079IREDNNITLKLDRCNN 3 Dr. Lanzavecchia, pers. comm. PF T3 380-398EKKIAKMEKASSVFNVVN 4 Hammer et al. 1993 Cell 74: 197 P30TT 947-967FNNFTVSFWLRVPKVSASHLE 5 Demotz et al. 1993 Eur. J Immunol 23: 425 P2TT830-843 QYIKANSKFIGITE 6 Demotz et al. 1993 Eur. J Immunol 23: 425 HA307-319 PKYVKQNTLKLAT 7 Alexander et al. 1994 Immunity 1: 751 HBVnc50-69 PHHTALRQAILCWGELMTLA 8 Alexander et al. 1994 Immunity 1: 751 HBsAg19-33 FFLLTRILTIPQSLD 9 Greenstein et al. 192 J Immunol 148: 3970 MT17-31 YSGPLKAEIAQRLEDV 10 Alexander et al. 1994 Immunity 1: 751 HSP70408-427 QPSVQIQVYQGEREIASHNK 11 Adams et al. 1997 Infect Immun 65: 1061Flag MDYKDDDD 12 peptide

After nucleotide sequencing of the selected clones, a clone namedpEMBLN6 was shown to contain six different T cell epitopes with norepetitive sequences. The N6 insert was then PCR-amplified andtransferred to pTrc-His expression vector (Invitrogen) using standardtechniques (Sambrook et al., 1989). The generation of the N6 comprisingplasmids is summarised in FIGS. 1A and 1B.

Construction of recombinant plasmids that express the N10 polyepitopecarrier protein.

Using synthetic oligodeoxyribonucleotides and standard cloningtechniques (Sambrook et al., 1989), four additional CD4+ T cell epitopeswere added to the N6 protein: HBVnc, HA, HbsAg, and MT (Table I). HBVncand HA were sequentially introduced into pTrc-N6 by means of twoconsecutive cloning steps; to the resulting plasmid the HbsAg and MTepitopes were added in a single cloning step.

After DNA sequencing, a correct construct (pTrc-N10) coding for theexpected ten epitope polyepitope protein was identified. The N10 codinginsert was then transferred from pTrc-N10 to pQE30 (Qiagen) by means ofPCR. The sequence of the resulting pQE-N10 construct was then confirmedby DNA sequencing.

Construction of the recombinant plasmid expressing N11 polyepitopecarrier protein.

Two complementary oligodeoxyribonucleotides were synthesised andannealed to obtain a DNA linker coding for the HSP70 CD4+ T cell epitope(Table I). The linker was inserted in pTrc-N10 plasmid downstream fromN10 coding region and in frame with it. After transformation in TOP10 E.coli strain the transformants were selected using protein expression andDNA sequencing analyses. Glycerol batches of a selected clone(TOP10/pTrc-N11) having the correct coding sequence and expressing aprotein of the expected molecular weight were stored to −80° C.

Construction of recombinant plasmids that express the N19 polyepitopecarrier protein.

The DNA fragment encompassing the coding region from P23TT to HBsAg wasPCR amplified using the plasmid pTrc-N10 as template and twooligonucleotide primers which allow the insertion of BgIII and PstIrestriction sites respectively at the 5′ and 3′ ends of the PCR product.The plasmid pTrc-N10 was digested with BamHI and PstI restrictionenzymes and ligated to the PCR product digested with BgIII and PstI.After transformation in TOP10 cells and selection of the transformantsusing protein expression and DNA sequencing analyses, glycerol batchesof a selected clone (TOP 10/pTrc-N19) having the correct coding sequenceand expressing a protein of the expected molecular weight were stored to−80° C.

The pTrc-N19 plasmid was digested with EcoRV and PstI and the insert wascloned in pQE-N10 digested with the same enzymes. After transformationin TG1 cells and selection of the transformants using protein expressionand DNA sequencing analyses, glycerol batches of a selected clone(TG1/pQE-N19) having the correct coding sequence and expressing aprotein of the expected molecular weight were stored to −80° C.

Purification of the polyepitope carrier proteins.

All the recombinant polyepitope carrier proteins were purified using asimilar strategy. Briefly, E. coli cultures were grown in 500 ml LBmedium containing 100 μg/ml Ampicillin, at 37° C. At 0.3-0.5 OD₆₀₀, theexpression of the polyepitope proteins was induced for 3-5 hours byadding 0.1-1 mM IPTG. Cells were disrupted by sonication or Frenchpress, the insoluble fraction was collected by centrifiagation,dissolved with buffer A (6 M guanidiniwn-HCL, 100 mM NaH₂PO₄, 10 mM Trisbase, pH 8) and adsorbed with 2 ml of Ni²⁺ NTA resin (Qiagen).

Then, the resin was packed in a column and washed with buffer A.Guanidinium-HCl was removed from the column by washing with buffer B (8M Urea 100 mM NaH₂PO₄, 10 mM Tris base) pH 8. After a wash with buffer BpH 6.5, recombinant proteins were eluted with a 20 ml buffer B gradientfrom pH 6.5 to pH 4. The fractions containing the purified recombinantproteins were pooled and dialysed against PBS, pH 7.2. Proteins wereanalysed by SDS-PAGE and protein content was determined using theBradford method. Alternatively, cell pellets obtained from E. colicultures were solubilized by heating at 37° C. in buffer A, the lysateswere centrifuged to 15.000 g for 20 min. The supernatants were subjectedto column chromatography on NICKEL ACTIVATED CHELATING SEPHAROSE FASTFLOW (Pharmacia). After a wash with buffer A and a wash with buffer B,pH 7, the proteins were separated by collecting fractions from a 0-200mM gradient of Imidazole in buffer B, pH 7. The fractions containing thepurified recombinant proteins. (as judged by SDS-PAGE and Coomassiestaining) were pooled and dialysed against PBS, pH 7.2

Preparation and activation of Hib oligosaccharides.

The Hib capsular polysaccharide can be prepared according to theprotocol described in Gotschlich et al. (1981): J. Biol. Chem.256:8915-8921.

1.99 L of a 10 mg/ml solution of Hib polysaccharide was hydrolysed in0.01M acetic acid at 76° C. for 5 hours. After chilling, neutralizationand 0.2 μm filtration, the resulting oligosaccharide population had anaverage degree of polymerisation (avDP) of 8 as measured by the chemicalratio between ribose and reducing groups.

NaCl was then added to the hydrolysate until a concentration of 0.16 Mwas attained, then diluted 1:1 with 0.16M NaCl/10 mM acetate pH 6 andsubmitted to tangential flow ultrafiltration on a 10 kDa membrane inorder to remove high molecular weight species.

Ultrafiltration comprised approximately 11-fold concentration followedby 15 cycles of diafiltration against 0.16 M NaCl/10 mM acetate, pH 6.The retentate was discarded. The permeate was diluted:1 with water and0.22 μm filtered. Chemical analysis revealed an avDp of 8.1.

The permeate obtained from 10 kDa UF was loaded, at a linear flow rateof 150 cm/h, onto a Q-SEPHAROSE FAST FLOW column [10 cm (ID); 5,5 cm(h)] equilibrated with 0.08 M NaCl/0.05 M sodium acetate pH 6. Afteradsorption, low molecular weight fragments (up to 5 repeats) wereremoved by washing the column with 10 column volumes of equilibratingbuffer and then eluted with 3 column volumes of 0.5 M NaCl/0.005M sodiumacetate pH 6. The eluate was 0.2 μm filtered and then analysed for avDpand ion exchange analytical chromatography. AvDP resulted at 17.3, ionexchange analytical chromatography on MONO Q HR 5/5 revealed the absenceof any small fragments until DP 5.

To introduce a terminal amino group, reductive animation was thenperformed; to the fractionated Hib oligosaccharide obtained fromQ-SEPHAROSE chromatography, ammonium chloride 35 mg/ml and sodiumcyanoboroidride 12 mg/ml final concentrations were added. Afterstirring, the solution was 0.2 μm filtered and incubated at 37° C. for120 hours. The amino oligosaccharide was then purified from excess ofreagents by precipitation with 95° EtOH (81° final concentration) in thecold for 15-20 hours. The precipitated oligosaccharide was thenrecovered by centrifugation, solubilized in NaCl 0.4M usingapproximately ¼ of the starting volume and precipitated again at 81°EtOH in thc cold for 15-20 hours

The amino-oligosaccharide was again recovered by centrifugation andsolubilized in about 300 ml of 0.02 M NaCl. After having taken a samplefor analysis, the resulting solution was then dried using a rotaryevaporator.

Colorimetric amino group analysis confirmed the introduction of aprimary amino group into the oligosaccharide.

Derivatisation to active ester was then performed as follows. Theamino-oligosaccharide was solubilised in distilled water at aconcentration of 40 μmol of amino groups per ml. The solution was thendiluted 10-fold with DMSO. Triethylamine was added in molar ratio to theamino groups of 2:1. N-hydroxysuccinimido diester of adipic acid wasthen added in a molar ratio to the amino groups of 12:1. The reactionmixture was kept under gentle stirring for 2 hours at RT. The activatedoligosaccharide was then purified from the excess of reagents byprecipitation into 10 volumes of 1-4 dioxane under stirring. After 30minutes in the cold the precipitate was collected onto a syntered glassfilter, washed onto the filter with dioxane and then dried under vacuum.The dried activated oligosaccharide was analysed for its content ofactive ester groups by a colorimetric method; this test showed thepresence of 62.1 μmol of active ester per mg of dried oligosaccharide.

The above-obtained activated oligosaccharide was then used forconjugation experiments.

Conjugation of the polyepitope carrier protein with Hib capsularoligosaccharides and purification of the conjugates.

33.4 moles of recombinant carrier protein and 669 mmoles of activatedHib oligosaccharide in a final volume of 0.5 ml 10 mM phosphate buffer,pH 7, were gently stirred overnight at RT and brought up to 5 ml 1M(NH₄)2SO₄, 10 mM phosphate pH 7. The sample was subjected to FPLC on a 1ml PHENYL SEPHAROSE 5/5 HR column (Pharmacia). 1 ml fractions werecollected both during washing (1M (NH₄)2SO₄, 10 mM phosphate, pH 7) andelution (10 mM phosphate, pH 7). Two peaks corresponding to thenon-adsorbed material and to the eluted material were obtained. Thepooled factions corresponding to the non-adsorbed material and thepooled fractions corresponding to the elution peak were subjected toprotein and ribose content determination and to SDS-PAGE and Westernblot analysis.

A protocol to conjugate recombinant proteins to oligosaccharidesdirectly on Ni₂₊- NTA resin was also developed. Recombinant proteinswere purified as described above, but the final dialysis step wasomitted. The protein content of the 8M urea fraction pool was measuredwith the Bradford assay. Te pH of the eluted proteins was adjusted to pH8 and adsorption on 1 ml pre-equilibrated Ni²⁺-NTA resin was againperformed in a batch mode. Urea was removed by washing with 4×25 ml 100mM phosphate buffer pH 7.5. The resin was suspended in 1 ml 100 mMphosphate bower pH 7.5 and a 20-fold molar excess of activated Hiboligosaccharide (as compared to the protein that was adsorbed on theresin) was added to the suspension. The mixture was gently stirredovernight at RT packed in a column, and washed with 50 ml 100 mMphosphate buffer pH 7.5 to remove unconjugated oligosaccharide.

Elution of the conjugate was performed with 100 mM phosphate buffer pH4. Peak fractions were pooled and dialysed against PBS, pH 7.2. Theconjugate was analysed by Coomassie staining of SDS-PAGE gels andWestern immunoblot using an anti-flag rabbit antibody. Theprotein/carbohydrate ratio of the glycoconjugate was determined uponBradford assay and ribose content determination

Cultures of PBMCs and T cell clones.

Culture medium for PBMCs was RPMI 1640 (Gibco Laboratories, Paisley,Scotland) supplemented with 2 mM L-glutamine, 1% nonessential aminoacids, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, gentamycin (50 μg/ml), and 5% human serum(RPMI-HS) or 10% foetal calf serum (RPMI-FCS). For the growth of T-celllines and clones, RPMI-HS was supplemented with 50 U of recombinantinterleukin-2 (rIL-2: Hoffmann La Roche, Nutley, N J) per ml.

PBMC Proliferation Assay.

Frozen PBMC (10⁵) from healthy adults immune to tetanus toxoid werethawed and cultured in duplicate wells of 96-well flat-bottomedmicroplates, in 0.2 ml of RPMI-HS (Di Tommaso et al, 1997). Therecombinant proteins and tetanus toxoids (Chiron, Siena) were added towells at the final concentration of 10 μg/ml. After 5 days of culture. 1μCi of [³H]thymidine (specific activity: 5 Ci/mmol, Amersham) was addedto each well and DNA-incorporated radioactivity was measured after anadditional 16 hrs by liquid scintillation counting.

Proliferation assay of T cell clones.

Two Human T cell clones, KSMIK 140, and GG-22, specific for P2TT andP30TT respectively, and the respective peptides were kindly provided byDr. A. Lanzavecchia (Basel, Switzerland). T cells (2×10⁴) were culturedwith autologous irradiated Epstein Barr Virus-transformed B lymphocytes(3×10⁴) in 0.2 ml of RPMI-FCS in 96-well flat-bottomed microplates induplicate wells. Synthetic peptides and conjugated or unconjugatedrecombinant proteins were added to cultures at a final concentration of10 μg/ml. After 2 days, 1 μCi of [³H]thymidine was added and theradioactivity incorporated was measured by liquid scintillation countingafter an additional 16 hours.

In some experiments, carrier proteins and their conjugates werepre-incubated with APCs for 24 hours, then APCs were washed and culturedwith T cell clones. This procedure was used to limit possibleproteolytic degradation by serum proteases and to be more confident thatepitope presentation would be due to intracellularly-processed epitopes.

Immunogenicity tests.

In a first experiment, equal doses of the glycoconjugates and of thepolysaccharide (2.5 μg as polysaccharide) in presence of 0.5 mg ofaluminium-hydroxide as adjuvant were injected subcutaneously into groupsof eight BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice (female, 7-week-old) on days 0, 21 and35. Mice were bled on day −1 (pre-immune), 20 (pre-2), 34 (pre-3) and 45(post-3) and individual sera collected and stored at −80° C. beforeELISA assay.

In a second experiment, equal doses of the glycoconjugates and of thepolysaccharide (2.5 μg as polysaccharide) in the presence of 0.5 mg ofaluminium hydroxide as adjuvant were injected subcutaneously into groupsof eight Swiss ('D1 and BALB/c mice (female, 7-week-old) on days 0, 10and 20. A boost of 2.5 μg of purified Hib polysaccharide (HibCPS) inpresence of 0.5 mg of aluminium hydroxide was then given to each mouseat day 70. Mice were bled on day −1 (pre-immune), 35 (post-vaccination),68 (pre-boost) and 85 (post-boost) and individual sera collected andstored at −80° C. before ELISA assay.

In a third experiment, equal doses of CRM-Hib, N10-Hib, and N19-Hib (2.5μg as polysaccharide) in presence of 0.5 mg of aluminium hydroxide asadjuvant were injected subcutaneously in groups of 6 Swiss CD1 mice(female, 7-week-old) on days 0, 15, and 28 in order to compare thecarrier effects. Different groups of mice were also subjected to thesame schedule but were previously primed with unconjugated carriers inorder to check for potential immunosuppression phenomena. In the lattergroups equal doses of carrier proteins (50 μg) in 0.5 mg alum wereinjected on day −30. All mice were bled on day −32 (pre-priming), −2(pre-immune), 14 (post-1), 27 (post-2), and 45 (post-3) and the serawere collected and stored to −80° C. before ELISA assay.

ELISA.

NUNC MAXISORP 96-well flat-bottomed plates were coated by overnightincubation at 4° C. with 1 μg/ml (as polysaccharide) of a human serumalbumin (HSA) and H. influenzae type b polysaccharide conjugate(HSA-Hib). After washing, wells were over-coated using 1% (w/v) gelatinin PBS, pH 7.2 for 3 additional hours at 37° C. Serum samples werediluted 1:50 in 5 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.2 containing 75 mM NaCl 1%(w/v) BSA and 0.05% (w/v) TWEEN-20 and dispensed in duplicate into thewells. Sera from untreated mic were pooled and diluted 1:50 as above anddispensed into 8 wells. After overnight incubation at 4° C., plates werewashed three times with 5 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.2 containing 75 mMNaCl and 0.05% (w/v) TWEEN-20. Then, alkaline phosphate-conjugated goatIgG anti-mouse IgG diluted 1:1000 and 5 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.2containing 75 mM NaCl 1% (w/v) BSA and 0.05% (w/v) TWEEN-20 were addedto each well, and incubated 3 hours at 37° C.

After repeated washing, 100 μl of a chromogen-substrate,p-nitrophenylphosphate, in a diethylenamine solution, were added to eachwell. Reaction was stopped after 20 min by adding a 4N NaOH solution.Then, the plate was read at 405 mM with a reference wavelength of 595mM. Titres were expressed as absorbencies at 405 mM (A_(405 mm)). Micewere considered responders when the average A_(405 mm) was found equalto or higher than four times the average of absorbencies of the eightwells with the sera from untreated animals. According to the EuropeanPharmacopoeia [PA/PH/Exp15/T(93)3ANP] four out of eight mice should beresponders.

In the second experiment, mice were considered responders when theaverage A_(405 mm), was found four times the average of the absorbenciesof eight pre-immune sera of the same group of treatment.

The anti carrier response was assayed as above described for anti-Hibresponse using plates coated with N10 or N6 (coating concentration=21μg/ml).

RESULTS

Construction of the Polyepitope Carrier Proteins.

Using the approaches described in materials and methods, we createdseveral E. coli clones expressing different carrier proteins. Thefollowing table lists only the six clones we utilised to purify therecombinant polyepitope carrier proteins:

Expressed Number of Theoretic E. coli Ex- Name of polyepitope amino-Mol. W. host pression the clone protein acids (kDa) strain vectorTop10-Trc- N6 143 16 Top10 pTrc-His N6 Top10-Trc- N10 218 24 Top10pTrc-His N10 TG1-QE- N10 218 24 TG1 pQE30 N10 Top10-Trc- N11 240 27Top10 pTrc-His N11 Top10-Trc- N19 390 43 Top10 pTrc-His N19 TG1-QE- N19390 43 TG1 pQE30 N19

The clone expressing N6 protein comprised the plasmid pTrc-N6transformed in the Top10 E. coli strain. As deduced from plasmid DNAsequencing, this plasmid coded for a protein having an hexahistidineamino terminal tail followed in sequence by a flag peptide, a FXa site,and the following T cell epitopes: P23TT, P32TT, P21TT, PfT3, P30TT andP2TT. All the epitopes were spaced by a KG amino acid sequence (FIG.2A).

The two clones that produced N10 protein ware the Top10 E. coli straincontaining the plasmid pTrc-N10, and the TG1 E. coli strain containingthe plasmid pQE-N10. Both these clones contained the N6 coding sequencefed to a carboxy terminal sequence coding for four additional T cellepitopes which were in the order: HBVnc, HA, HBsAg, aud MT (FIGS.2B-2C).

The clone that produced N11 protein comprised the plasmid pTrc-N10transformed in the Top10 E. coli strain. As deduced from plasmid DNAsequencing, this plasmid coded for a protein consisting of the N10sequence fused to a carboxy terminal sequence coding for the HSP70 Tcell (FIGS. 7A-7B).

The two clones that produced N19 protein were the Top10 E. coli straincontaining the plasmid pTrc-N19, and the TG1 E. coli strain containingthe plasmid pQE-N19. Both these clones contained the N10 coding sequencefused to a carboxy terminal sequence coding for nine additional T cellepitopes which were in the order: P23TT, P32TT, P21TT, PfT3, P30TT,P2TT, HBVnc, HA, and HBsAg (FIG. 8).

Protein Expression and Purification.

FIGS. 3 and 4 depict protein expression of the three synthetic proteins.The addition of four new epitopes (HBVnc, HA, HbsAg, and MT) to N6 inpTrc-His (lane D) to obtain N10 protein (lane C) resulted in aremarkable reduction of protein expression. An attempt to increase theexpression level of N10 simply involved changing the expression vector(from pTrc)-His to pQE30) and the E. coli strain (from Top10 to TG1). Asseen in FIGS. 3 and 4, the amount of N10 expressed by pQE30-N10 in TG1(lane B) was notably higher than the sane protein expressed by pTrc-N10(lane C). This is thought possibly to be due to the fact that whereas N6protein was effectively assembled by the E. coli strain in the order ofepitopes most suited to the organism, whereas the addition of fourfurther epitopes was effectively forced and thus was less natural.However, the fact that the level of N10 expression was notably increasedby simply changing expression vector (from pTrc-His to PQE30) and E.coli strain (from TOP-10 to TG1) suggests that additional factors, otherthan epitope combination, play a role in protein expression.

FIG. 9 shows protein expression and purification of the N11 protein(SDS-PAGE and Coomassie staining). Total extract coming from an includedculture (lane B) shows an induced band, corresponding roughly to theexpected molecular weight of N11 protein, that is not present in inducedextract (lane A). The identity of the induced band was established alsoby western blot using an anti-flag antibody, and was also deduced fromplasmid DNA sequencing (FIG. 7). N11 purification (FIG. 9, lane C) wasdone by solubilising whole cell pellets in guanidinium and by subjectingthe whole extract to IMAC chromatography, with this procedure weobtained 14 mg of recombinant N11 protein from one liter ofTop10-Trc-N11 flask culture. The addition of HSP70 T cell epitope to thecarboxy terminus of N10 resulted in a construct (pTrc-N11) that was ableto notably improve the expression of the polyepitope protein as comparedto the expression obtained from pTrc-N10.

As it was for the N10 protein, also the expression of N19 protein wasimproved by changing the expression vector (from pTrc-His to pQE30) andthe host strain (from Top10 to TG1). TG1(QE-N19) was used to purify N19polyepitope protein. By subjecting solubilised inclusion bodies to IMACchromatography, we purified (see FIG. 10A) 5.42 mg of N19 protein fromone liter of flask culture. The identity of N19 was identified inSDS-Page as an induced band having the expected molecular weight, inimmuno western blot using an anti-flag antibody, and was also deducedafter plasmid DNA sequencing (FIGS. 8A-8B).

All clones expressing recombinant polyepitope proteins produced themmainly in the form of inclusion bodies. Purification of N6 and N10proteins from inclusion bodies solubilised with 8M urea using animmobilised metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) procedure in thepresence of 8M urea resulted in the loss of a high percentage of proteinwhich was elutable with a 6.5-4 pH gradient (data not shown).

On the contrary, almost all of the histidine-tagged protein was elutedwith the 6.5-4 pH gradient when starting inclusion bodies weresolubilised with 6M guanidine hydrochloride (FIGS. 5 and 6). Using thisprotocol 7.8 mg of N6 was purified from a liter of culture. The N10protein that was employed in immunisation and T cell proliferationexperiments was purified from pTrc-N10 clone.

Given the lower expression of recombinant protein shown by this clone wedecided to purify N10 protein by solubilising whole cells withguanidinium in such a way as to exploit soluble and insoluble (inclusionbodies) proteins for IMAC purification. With this procedure 1.5 mg ofpurified N10 protein was obtained from a liter of culture. The highersuccess of solubilisation using 6M guanidium is thought to be due to theability of this compound to solubilise the carrier proteins in monomericform.

Rib oligosaccharide conjugation to polyepitope proteins.

Using the phenyl sepharose FPLC protocol we obtained a purified N6-Hibconjugate having a protein content of 79.4 μg/ml, and an oligosaccharidecontent of 42.7 μg/ml.

We observed that 30% of conjugated protein was unable to bind to phenylsepharose in the presence of 1M (NH₄)SO₄. In addition, 30-40% of carrierprotein was previously lost during a dialysis step to remove urea beforethe conjugation reaction. To overcome these problems it was checked ifit was possible to perform the conjugation reactions when the proteinwas adsorbed on the Ni²⁺-NTA resin. We observed that the Hiboligosaccharide was unable to bind Ni²⁺-NTA resin at any pH, suggestingthe feasibility of this approach and predicting that no interference dueto the oligosaccharide could influence the elution of the protein onceconjugation had taken place.

A reaction was thus set up involving protein adsorption on Ni²⁺-NTAresin in the presence of 8M urea, urea removal, conjugation witholigosaccharide, washing, and conjugate elution. No aggregationphenomena were observed for the eluted conjugate. Using this procedurewe obtained a purified N6-Hib conjugate having a protein content of 320μg/ml and an oligosaccharide content of 370 μg/ml. and a purifiedN10-Hib having a protein content of 113 μg/ml and an oligosaccharidecontent of 114 μg/ml.

By using a 1:10 protein to carbohydrate molar ratio to conjugateoligosaccharide to recombinant carriers, we observed that a fraction ofprotein remained unconjugated (as judged by Coomassie staining ofSDS-PAGE gel and Western immunoblot; data not shown). When a 1:20protein to carbohydrate stoichiometric ratio was used, all the purifiedrecombinant proteins were found to be completely conjugated, in fact, byanalysing Coomassie-stained gels and western immunoblots using ananti-Flag antibody. We observed that after conjugation of N6 and N10with Hib oligosaccharides these molecules increased their molecularweight, appearing a high molecular weight smear, and proteins were nolonger visible at the expected molecular weight for N6 and N10 monomers.This suggested that the synthetic proteins were completely conjugated toHib oligosaccharides (data not shown).

The conjugation of activated Hib oligosaccharide to N19 protein resultedin a protein content of 173 μg/ml and in an oligosaccharide content of127 μg/ml. FIG. 10B depicts an SDS-Page and Coomassie staining analysisof the fractions obtained from IMAC chromatography of the N19 conjugatedto Hib polysaccharide. All N19 protein resulted to be conjugated, asjudged by the high molecular weight of the conjugate and by the absenceof 43.000 kDa unconjugated N19 protein. FIG. 10C shows the correspondingwestern immuno-blot using an anti-flag antibody. Also here it can beappreciated that all N19 protein migrated as a very high molecularweight after conjugation to Hib polysaccharide, and that there is notunconjugated N19 protein migrating at 43.000 kDa.

Recognition of carrier proteins and their conjugates by human Tlymphocytes.

To investigate whether T cell epitopes contained in the polypeptideswere recognised by human T cells we used T cell clones specific for theTT universal epitopes p2TT and p30TT (Demotz et al. 1993). FIG. 11 showsthat N6 is recognised by both clones not only as a simple polypeptidebut also after it has been conjugated with polysaccharide. Remarkably,N6-Hib is recognised even better than unconjugated N6 by the T cellclone specific for P2TT. N10-Hib is recognised by the clone specific forp2TT but is poorly recognised by the clone specific for P30TT. In bothcases N10-Hib exerts the same stimulatory activity as the syntheticpeptide. The N10 clone was not tested in these experiments.

Once assessed that the T cell epitopes contained in the carrier proteinsare correctly presented to T lymphocytes, we asked whether thesecarriers maintain their stimulatory capacity when presented to aheterogeneous population of lymphocytes such as PBMC. This could bepredictive of whether our carriers might function as such once injectedinto subjects immune to antigens whose epitopes are included in thecarriers themselves. For this purpose we used PBMC from donors immune toTT (A. Di Tommaso et al. 1997), since TT epitopes are the mostrepresented in our polypeptides. FIG. 12 shows that all the formulationswere able to stimulate PBMC proliferation.

However, the incubation of PBMC with a synthetic peptide representingone of the epitopes included in both N6 and N10 constructs failed toexert a stimulatory effect. As a positive control, the PBMC were alsoincubated with 10 μg/ml of TT, that in all cases induced a proliferativeresponse. Interestingly, the N6 polyepitope protein turned out to be themost potent PBMC stimulator among those tested in two out of threevolunteers.

Immunogenicity Tests.

The carrier effect of the proteins N10 and N6 in comparison with CRM197was assayed in mice in several glycoconjugate vaccines. Once coupled toHib oligosaccharides the carrier proteins were injected in differentmouse strains to verify the potential of their carrier effect. In BALB/cmice, an equivalent anti-Hib response was found when CRM197 and N10 wereused as carrier proteins, whilst a lower response was found when N6 wasused as carrier protein. This result was evident when the results wereexpressed using titres, while responder percentages failed to evidencethe lower anti-Hib response obtained with the N6 protein carrier.

In C57BL/6 mice, the N6 protein gave a negative result, while positiveresults were obtained with CRM 197 and N 10, even if to a lower extent.These results were evident both using titres or responder percentages toexpress the results. When the results were expressed as a responderpercentage, the high carrier effect of CRM197 and N10 was well evidencedwith respect to N6, whose results were lower than 50% at day −34 and day−45 bleedings, after a comparable primary response (pre-2 bleeding, day20).

Table II reports the results of the experiments in BALB/c and C57BL/6mice.

In Swiss CD1 mice, the titres obtained with the N10 carrier protein wereequivalent to those obtained with CRM197. The anti-Hib titres increasedafter immunisation up to the 70th day, when a polysaccharide boost wasgiven to assay whether or not an immunological memory was induced in thetreated mice. No boost effect was observed with any carrier, althoughwhen CRM197 or N10 were used as carrier protein the titre did notdecrease. In this mouse strain the immunisation with N6Hibglycoconjugate give results very similar to the controls (polysaccharideand alum). The boost effect was not evidenced even in BALB/c mice thatevoke a lower response with respect to Swiss CD1 mice.

The results are summarised in Table III.

Immunisation of different mice strains with Hib oligosaccharidesconjugated to the artificial carrier proteins resulted in a good carriereffect exerted by N10 whilst N6 gave unsatisfactory results. Thissuggests that the size of the protein or the number of T cell epitopeshas a high influence in providing T cell help to the oligosaccharides.

We used outbred CD1 mice to perform an immunogenicity experiment inwhich the carrier effect of N19 protein was compared to the carriereffects of N10 and CRM197. In addition, in order to explore potentialcarrier-induced immunosuppression phenomena, the three doses of N10-Hib,N19-Hib and CRM-Hib were given to groups of mice that did not receivedcarrier priming and to groups of mice that one month before were primedwith 50 μg of the respective unconjugated carrier (see materials andmethods).

TABLE II RESPONDER (%) A₄₀₅ × 1000 (GMT's) DAY BLEEDING N10-Hib N5 +146-Hib CRM-Hib N10-Hib N5 + 146-Hib CRM-Hib BALB/c MICE 0 PRE-IMMUNE 00 0 10 17 12 20 PRE-2 33.3 33.3 50 135 162 257 34 POST-2/PRE-3 100 100100 2022 1356 1969 45 POST-3 100 100 100 1717 1368 1616 C57BL/6 MICE 0PRE-IMMUNE 0 0 0 28 38 31 20 PRE-2 83.3 83.3 83.3 136 192 609 34POST-2/PRE-3 83.3 33.3 100 1451 306 2612 45 POST-3 100 33.3 100 1731 2222240

TABLE III SWISS CD1 MICE DAY BLEEDING CRM-Hib N5 + 146-Hib N10-Hib PsHibALUM TITRE GMT's (A_(405 nm) × 10³) −1 PRE-IMMUNISATION 59 98 156 166175 35 POST-IMMUNISATION 1577 471 1007 227 243 68 PRE-BOOST 2082 8891789 590 461 85 POST-BOOST 2073 630 1767 364 479 RESPONDER (%) −1PRE-IMMUNISATION 0 0 0 0 0 35 POST-IMMUNISATION 100 50 62.5 0 0 68PRE-BOOST 87.5 87.5 100 25 25 85 POST-BOOST 87.5 62.5 85.7 12.5 37.5

Days Group −32 −30 −2 0 14 15 27 28 45 1 bleeding DT* bleeding CRM-Hibbleeding CRM-Hib bleeding CRM-Hib bleeding 2 bleeding bleeding CRM-Hibbleeding CRM-Hib bleeding CRM-Hib bleeding 3 bleeding N10 bleedingN10-Hib bleeding N10-Hib bleeding N10-Hib bleeding 4 bleeding bleedingN10-Hib bleeding N10-Hib bleeding N10-Hib bleeding 5 bleeding N19bleeding N19-Hib bleeding N19-Hib bleeding N19-Hib bleeding 6 bleedingbleeding N19-Hib bleeding N19-Hib bleeding N19-Hib bleeding *For primingwe used a chemically detoxified diphtheria toxin (DT: diphtheria toxoid)instead of the non toxic mutant (CRM-197) of diphtheria toxin.

The results are depicted in FIG. 13. In unprimed mice the best anti-Hibtitres were obtained using N19-Hib, whilst CRM-Hib and N10-Hib gavelower titres. According to the known direct proportion between the sizeof the carrier molecules and the exerted carrier effect, N19-Hibelicited a clearly improved anti-Hib response as compared to N10-Hib. Inaddition N19-Hib seems slightly superior also when compared to CRM-Hibsuggesting the feasibility to substitute “classical” carrier proteinswith the recombinant CD4+ polyepitope proteins. In contrast to theprevious immunogenicity test performed on CD1 mice, were the carriereffects of N10 and CRM-197 were similar, in this new test the meananti-Hib titre elicited by N10-Hib was notably lower than the oneobtained with CRM-Hib.

In primed mice the best results were obtained with N19-Hib, whichelicited a better response also when compared to the response obtainedin unprimed mice, suggesting a potentiation due to the priming with N19protein. A slight potentiation was also obtained after priming with N10.Conversely, anti-Hib response obtained with CRM-Hib in primed mice wasnotably lower of the response obtained in unprimed mice, confirming thecarrier induced immunosuppression often observed with the carriers incurrent use.

Since N10 and N19 contains five and ten tetanus toxoid T cell epitopesrespectively, we subjected N10-Hib and N19-Hib to an immunogenicity testin CD1 mice primed with tetanus toxoid. The goal of this experiment wasto check whether in primed mice the anti-Hib titers were improved incomparison to non-primed mice. Surprisingly, tetanus toxoid primingpotentiated the immunoresponse to Hib in mice immunised with N10-Hib butnot in mice that received N19-Hib (data not shown).

From the performed immunogenicity tests we can make the following fewconclusions:

-   -   1. The carrier effect of the polyepitope protein is directly        related to its size.

2. Recombinant polyepitope proteins N10 and N19 can parallel or exceedCRM-197 as carriers.

3. The polyepitope carrier proteins do not suffer of carrier inducedsuppression.

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1. A carrier protein that comprises a P23TT, P32TT, P21TT, PFT3, P30 TT,P2TT, HBVnc, influenza hemagglutinin (HA), HbsAg and influenza matrix(MT) CD4+ T cell epitopes.
 2. The carrier protein according to claim 1,that further comprises an hsp70CD4+ T cell epitope.
 3. The carrierprotein according to claim 1, wherein the CD4+ T cell epitopes are humanCD4+ T cell epitopes.
 4. The carrier protein according to claim 2,wherein the CD4+ T cell epitopes arc human CD4+ T cell epitopes.
 5. Thecarrier protein according to claim 1, wherein the carrier protein is inan oligomeric form.
 6. The carrier protein according to claim 2, whereinthe carrier protein is in an oligomeric form.
 7. The carrier proteinaccording to claim 1, conjugated to a polysaccharide.
 8. The carrierprotein according to claim 2, conjugated to a polysaccharide.
 9. Avaccine comprising the carrier protein according to claim
 1. 10. Avaccine comprising the carrier protein according to claim
 2. 11. Thecarrier protein according to claim 7, wherein the polysaccharide is frompneumoniae, N. meningitidis, S. aureus, Klebsiella, or S. tyhimurium.12. The carrier protein according to claim 7, wherein the polysaccharideis conjugated to the carrier protein by a covalent linkage.
 13. Thecarrier protein according to claim 7, wherein the polysaccharide is anHaemophilus influenzae type B polysaccharide.
 14. The carrier proteinaccording to claim 8, wherein the polysaccharide is an Haemophilusinfluenzae type B polysaccharide.
 15. The carrier protein according toclaim 7, wherein the polysaccharide is conjugated to the carrier proteinby reductive amination.
 16. A vaccine comprising the carrier proteinaccording to claim
 13. 17. A vaccine comprising the carrier proteinaccording to claim 14.